土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献翻译2篇

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1、XXXXXXXXX学院学士学位毕业设计（论文）英语翻译课 题 名 称 英语翻译 学 号 学 生 专 业、年级 所 在 院 系 指 导 教 师 选 题 时 间 Fundamental Assumptions for Reinforced Concrete BehaviorThe chief task of the structural engineer is the design of structures. Design is the determination of the general shape and all specific dimensions of a particular s

2、tructure so that it will perform the function for which it is created and will safely withstand the influences that will act on it throughout useful life. These influences are primarily the loads and other forces to which it will be subjected, as well as other detrimental agents, such as temperature

3、 fluctuations, foundation settlements, and corrosive influences, Structural mechanics is one of the main tools in this process of design. As here understood, it is the body of scientific knowledge that permits one to predict with a good degree of certainly how a structure of give shape and dimension

4、s will behave when acted upon by known forces or other mechanical influences. The chief items of behavior that are of practical interest are (1) the strength of the structure, i. e. , that magnitude of loads of a give distribution which will cause the structure to fail, and (2) the deformations, suc

5、h as deflections and extent of cracking, that the structure will undergo when loaded under service condition.The fundamental propositions on which the mechanics of reinforced concrete is based are as follows:1. The internal forces, such as bending moments, shear forces, and normal and shear stresses

6、, at any section of a member are in equilibrium with the effect of the external loads at that section. This proposition is not an assumption but a fact, because any body or any portion thereof can be at rest only if all forces acting on it are in equilibrium.2. The strain in an embedded reinforcing

7、bar is the same as that of the surrounding concrete. Expressed differently, it is assumed that perfect bonding exists between concrete and steel at the interface, so that no slip can occur between the two materials. Hence, as the one deforms, so must the other. With modern deformed bars, a high degr

8、ee of mechanical interlocking is provided in addition to the natural surface adhesion, so this assumption is very close to correct.3. Cross sections that were plane prior to loading continue to be plan in the member under load. Accurate measurements have shown that when a reinforced concrete member

9、is loaded close to failure, this assumption is not absolutely accurate. However, the deviations are usually minor.4. In view of the fact the tensile strength of concrete is only a small fraction of its compressive strength; the concrete in that part of a member which is in tension is usually cracked

10、. While these cracks, in well-designed members, are generally so sorrow as to be hardly visible, they evidently render the cracked concrete incapable of resisting tension stress whatever. This assumption is evidently a simplification of the actual situation because, in fact, concrete prior to cracki

11、ng, as well as the concrete located between cracks, does resist tension stresses of small magnitude. Later in discussions of the resistance of reinforced concrete beams to shear, it will become apparent that under certain conditions this particular assumption is dispensed with and advantage is taken

12、 of the modest tensile strength that concrete can develop.5. The theory is based on the actual stress-strain relation ships and strength properties of the two constituent materials or some reasonable equivalent simplifications thereof. The fact that novelistic behavior is reflected in modern theory,

13、 that concrete is assumed to be ineffective in tension, and that the joint action of the two materials is taken into consideration results in analytical methods which are considerably more complex and also more challenging, than those that are adequate for members made of a single, substantially ela

14、stic material. These five assumptions permit one to predict by calculation the performance of reinforced concrete members only for some simple situations. Actually, the joint action of two materials as dissimilar and complicated as concrete and steel is so complex that it has not yet lent itself to

15、purely analytical treatment. For this reason, methods of design and analysis, while using these assumptions, are very largely based on the results of extensive and continuing experimental research. They are modified and improved as additional test evidence becomes available. 钢筋混凝土的基本假设作为结构工程师的主要任务是结

16、构设计。设计是对一般的结构和特定结构等所有层面的一个具体的确定，使结构可以被安全地建造，并安全地承受的各种因素的影响，在它的整个使用寿命中能够很好的发挥作用。这些影响主要是来自承受的负载和其它受到的因素，以及其他有害的影响如温度波动，基础下陷的影响或是受到侵蚀的影响。结构力学是结构设计的主要工具之一，在这个设计过程中，要做一个良好的预测，得到结构变形的程度，能够及时的采取一定的措施去加固。在这个过程中要做的最重要的事是：（1）充分的研究这个结构，即能够得到这个结构所能承受的极限的结构荷载的大小和强度（2）还有就是变形，了解结构在承受荷载时变形的程度，出现裂缝的程度。以上所提到的钢筋混凝土的力学

17、基础的基本主张是：1、内部力量，如弯矩，剪力，承受正常剪应力的任何一个结构部分，在受外部负载的影响时部分的结构是平衡的。这一主张不是一个假设，而是一个事实，因为任何机构或其任何部分在整个结构中受力都是平衡的。2、一个嵌入式钢筋的应变与外部具体是相同的。这是假设混凝土和钢筋之间存在完美结合，这样两种材料之间没有可能发生滑移。因此，一个构件在变形时，机械的连锁提供自然截面的附着力，所以是非常接近这个假设的。3、在截面那些负载装载之前，应继续在加载的负载。精确的测量表明，当一个钢筋混凝土构件加载接近失败时，这种假设并非绝对准确。但是，通常偏差是轻微的。4、在鉴于混凝土的抗拉强度比起其抗压强度差很多，

18、在这一个构件中，肯定会存在裂缝，虽然这些裂缝在精心设计的构件中通常是难以见到。这种假设显然是实际情况比较简单，因为事实上，混凝土开裂之前，位于混凝土的裂缝处有抵制小幅度的拉应力。后来在钢筋混凝土梁的抗剪切的讨论中，这种特定的假设有一定的条件和优势是明显的，适当配合比强度的混凝土可以有发展的前景的。5、该理论是基于实际应力应变关系和两部分组成材料合理的组合产生的等效强度性能。理论的内容在实际生活中体现，将这两个材料联合使用比那些高弹性材料建造的结构的结构设计复杂得多也更具挑战性。这五个假设能预测一些简单的情况下钢筋混凝土构件。事实上钢筋和混凝土这两个中同样复杂的材料，在一起使用时不适于纯粹的分析

19、处理。由于这个原因，在结构的设计方法和分析使用这些假设时，最主要的依据是广泛和持续使用的实验研究结果，这些修改和补充检验的理论可以使钢筋混凝土结构变得可以被使用。Development Tendency and Instructions of Civil EngineeringWith the progress in science and technology and engineering development of the practice of the disciplines of Civil Engineering has developed into a broad connot

20、ation, many categories, and the structure of complex integrated system. For example, on civil engineering projects built with the use of facilities in terms of functionality, and some interest for residential purposes；Some production activities; some for land, sea and air transport; some for water u

21、tilities; some as a tool for information transmission; some as a means of energy transmission and so on. This requires the integrated use of a variety of civil engineering material conditions in order to meet diverse needs. Civil Engineering has developed a lot of branches, such as housing projects,

22、 railway projects, road projects, airport projects, bridge projects, the tunnel and underground engineering, special engineering structures, water supply and drainage works, urban heating for the gas works, port works, water conservancy engineering sciences. Some of these branches, such as water con

23、servancy project, because of their own projects targeted at the growing and specialized scientific and technological development have been divided out from the civil engineering disciplines as an independent system, but they are still largely in common with civil engineering. Civil Sociality are acc

24、ompanied by the development of human society developed. It reflects the construction of engineering facilities in every historical period of socio-economic, cultural, scientific, technical development of the face, thus civil society has become one of the historical development of the witness. Ancien

25、t times, people will start to build simple houses, roads, bridges to meet the needs of easy living and production needs. Later, the people in order to adapt to the war, production and dissemination of religious life and the needs of the construction of the city, canals, palaces, temples and other bu

26、ildings. Many well-known works shown in this historical period of human creativity. For example, Chinas Great Wall, Du Jiang Yan, the Grand Canal, Zhao Zhou Bridge, Ying Xian Wooden Tower, Egypts pyramids, the Greek Parthenon, Romes water supply engineering, coliseum amphitheater (Rome large bucket

27、beast field), as well as many other well-known churches, palaces and so on. After the industrial revolution, especially to the 20th century, on the one hand, civil society to put forwards a new demand; on the other hand, are all areas of society for the advancement of Civil Engineering has created f

28、avorable conditions. Such as building materials (steel, cement) implementation of industrial production, machinery and energy technology, and design theory of progress are provided for the Civil Engineering Materials and technical assurance. Thus this period has been rapid development of civil engin

29、eering. Emerged around the world at large-scale modernization of industrial plants, skyscrapers, nuclear power plants, highways and railways, large-span bridges, large-diameter pipelines, long tunnels, the Grand Canal, big dams, big airports, major seaports and marine engineering and so on. Modern c

30、ivil society continue to create for mankind a new physical environment, human society and modern civilization has become an important part.Practical Civil Engineering is a highly practical subject. In the early days, through the Engineering Practice of Civil Engineering, sum up successful experience

31、s, especially the lessons learn from the failure of developed. From the beginning the 17th century to Galileo and Newton as the forerunner of modern mechanical and civil engineering practice, and has gradually formed material mechanics, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, and rock mechanics, as t

32、he basic theory of civil engineering disciplines. This Civil Engineering from the experience gradually developed into a science. Civil Engineering at the development process, engineering practice and experience often first in theory, works often show that the accident was unable to foresee that the

33、new factors, triggering a new theory of the research and development. So far, many works deal with the problem, is still very much rely on practical experience. The reason why the development of civil engineering technology major with engineering practice rather than by virtue of scientific experime

34、nts and theoretical studies, there are two reasons: First, some of the objective situation is too complicated, it is difficult to faithfully carry out laboratory or field testing and theoretical analysis. For example, ground-based foundation, tunnels and underground engineering stress and deformatio

35、n state and its changes over time is still necessary to refer to an analysis of engineering experience to judge. The second is only for new engineering practice in order to reveal new problems. For example, the construction of a high-rise building, high-rise tower mast and large cross-bridges, the w

36、ind resistance and seismic engineering highlighted the problem in order to develop this new theory and technology. Technically, economically as well as building up the unity of the arts people seek the most economical to build an engineering facility is scheduled to meet the needs of users, includin

37、g the aesthetic requirements. While a project is economic and technical activities are closely related. Projects economic performance at the outset of the project site, on the overall planning, followed by performance at the design and construction technical. The total investment for project constru

38、ction, the project is completed after the period of economic efficiency and the use of the maintenance costs are measured works of an important aspect of the economy. Close contact that these technical issues, be considered. Meet the functional requirements of civil engineering facilities as a space

39、 for art, first and foremost through the overall layout of the body itself, the various parts of the size of the ratio of lines, colors, light and shade and the shadow of the surrounding environment, including its coordination with the natural harmony manifested; followed by the adoption of the Addi

40、tional engineering facilities in the local decorative reflected. Engineering facilities and decorative shapes can also show places style, ethnic style and time style?Civil Engineering at the long-term practice, people not only to the building housing the arts to give considerable attention, and achi

41、eved outstanding success; but also for other engineering facilities, but also through the choice of different building materials, such as the use of stone, steel and reinforced concrete, with the natural environment built on very much in the art is beautiful, functional works also very good. Ancient

42、 China the Great Wall, much of the modern world on TV and oblique Zhang bridges, are examples in this regard. Civil Engineering is the construction of various projects and facilities, collectively referred to science and technology. It refers to the application of materials, equipment and carried ou

43、t the investigation, design, construction, maintenance and other technical activities; also refers to the construction of the object, that is built on the ground or underground, on land or water, directly or indirectly, for human life , production, military, scientific research services for a variet

44、y of engineering facilities, such as housing, roads, railways, pipelines, tunnels, bridges, canals, dams, ports, power plants, airports, offshore platforms, water supply and drainage and protection works. Construction material and engineering facilities are basic land, building materials, constructi

45、on equipment and construction machinery. With these material conditions, economic and convenient built to meet the people can use requirements and aesthetic requirements, but also to tolerate the various loads security engineering facilities, civil engineering disciplines are the starting point and

46、destination. Civil Engineering and three times in the history of the leap Of Civil Engineering play a critical role in the development of, first of all, as are the material foundation for the civil engineering building materials, followed by the subsequent development of design theory and constructi

47、on technology. Whenever there is a fine new building materials, the Civil Engineering will have leap-type development. People at an early stage can only depend on the soil, wood and other natural materials to create engaging activities, the subsequent emergence of such artificial brick and tile buil

48、ding materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural building materials. Chinese in the eleventh century BC and the early Western Zhou Dynasty to create the tile. The first brick in the fifth century BC to the third century BC, when the tomb of the Warring States Period. Brick an

49、d tile soil better than mechanical properties, can local materials, and easy to manufacture. The appearance of brick and tile people begin extensive and substantial in construction of housing and urban flood control projects. This civil engineering technology has been rapid development. Up to 18 19

50、century, at up to two thousand years, brick and tile has been a civil engineering building materials essential for the human civilization has made a great contribution, and even at present is also widely used. Steel substantial civil engineering applications are the second leap. 70s start the sevent

51、eenth century the use of pig iron, the beginning of the nineteenth century the use of wrought iron construction of bridges and housing, steel this is a prelude to appear.From the beginning the middle of the nineteenth century, metallurgical industry, smelting and rolling out of high tensile and comp

52、ressive strength, ductility, and the quality of uniform building steel, and then produce high-strength steel wire, steel cable. Therefore necessary to adapt to the development of the steel structure has been booming. In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structures, the new truss

53、, frames, grid structure, gradually extended the suspension structure, a structural form flowers Zhengyan situation. Building long-span structures from brick, stone structure, wood structure a few meters, the development of tens of meters to 100 meters of steel structures, a few hundred meters until

54、 1000 meters above modern. So at Dajiang, both shelves starting Bridge, starting at the ground on the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise tower, and even laying on the ground under the railway, to create an unprecedented miracle. In order to meet the needs of the development of steel structure

55、 engineering, at the basis of Newtons mechanics, material mechanics, structural mechanics, structural design works on the theory came into being. Construction machinery, construction technology and construction organization design theory also the development of civil engineering rose from experience

56、 become a science, in engineering practice and the basic theories have taken on a new look, which led to more rapid development of civil engineering. The nineteenth century, 20s, made of Portland cement, the concrete had come out. Concrete aggregate can be local materials, ease of molding concrete s

57、tructures, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, uses are restricted. After the mid-nineteenth century, iron and steel production surged, with the attendant emergence of this new type of reinforced concrete composite building materials, which bear the pulling force of reinforced concre

58、te to bear the pressure to play their respective advantages. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, reinforced concrete is widely used in civil engineering fields. Start from the thirties, there has been pre-stressed concrete. Prestressed concrete structures crack resistance, stiffness and lo

59、ad-bearing capacity, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses an even wider area. Civil Engineering into the reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete dominant historical period. Give the appearance of concrete buildings have brought new economic, aesthetic form of engineeri

60、ng structures, so that a new civil engineering construction technology and engineering structural design theory. This is another leap forward in the development of civil engineering.土木工程的发展随着科学技术和工程在土木工程的学科实践中的发展进步，已经发展成为内容广泛，种类繁多，综合系统复杂的结构。例如，土木工程的项目在建造时使用的设备发挥一定的功能，以及一些体现住宅用途的，对一些生产活动，对一些地面，海上和空中的

61、运输条件;一些供水设施，一些作为信息传输的工具，一些作为能源传输的手段等等。这需要土木工程材料综合使用各种条件，以满足不同需求。土木工程已经发展了很多分支，如住宅项目，铁路工程，道路工程，机场工程，桥梁工程，隧道和地下工程，特种工程结构，供水，排水工程，对燃气工程，港口工程，城市供热水水利工程科学。一些分支如水利工程，因为他们自己的项目在不断增加，专业科学技术的发展，一直处于分裂状态，从作为一个独立的系统，土木工程学科有针对性的，但他们仍然在很大程度上与土木工程共同点。公民社会性是人类与社会同时发展。它反映在每个历史时期的社会工程设施建设，经济，文化，科学，技术发展的表面，从而民主的社会已经成

62、为了历史发展的见证之一。自古以来，人们将开始建立简单的房屋，道路，桥梁，以满足简单的生活和生产需要的需要。后来，人们为了适应战争，产生和传播宗教生活，需要建设运河，宫殿，庙宇和其他建筑物。许多著名的工程在这一历史时期表现出的人类的创造性。例如，中国的长城，都江堰，运河，赵州桥，应县木塔，埃及的金字塔，希腊的帕台农神庙，罗马的供水工程，科洛西姆圆形竞技场（罗马大斗兽场），以及其他许多著名的教堂，宫殿等。工业革命后，特别是对20世纪，一方面，民主社会提出的新要求，另一方面，是为土木工程对全社会的进步创造了有利条件的地区。例如建材（钢铁，水泥）的工业生产，机械能源技术，和设计理论的进展提供了土木工程

63、材料和技术保证。因此，土木工程在这一时期得到了快速发展。世界各地出现的大量的工业厂房，高层建筑，核电厂，公路，铁路，大跨度桥梁，大直径管道大规模的现代化，长隧道，大运河，大水坝，大机场，主要港口和海洋工程等。现代民主社会继续创造人类新的物理环境，人类社会与现代文明已成为一个重要组成部分。实用土木工程是一个非常实用的科目。在初期，通过土木工程，总结成功经验，特别是工程实践的经验借鉴了发达国家的失败。从一开始，17世纪的伽利略和牛顿成为现代机械和民用工程实践的先导，并已逐步将材料力学，结构力学，流体力学，岩石力学作为土木工程学科的基本理论。逐渐发展成为一门科学土木工程的经验。在土木工程的发展过程中

64、，工程实践和经验，往往首先在理论上，在作品里，表明事故是无法预见的新因素，引发了研究和发展的新理论。到目前为止，许多作品的处理问题，在很大程度上仍然依赖于实践经验。 土木工程技术的发展比起工程实践更倾向于实验和理论研究是有原因的，两个原因是：第一，客观形势的太过复杂，很难绝对的履行实验室或现场试验和理论分析。例如，地基基础，隧道和地下工程应力和变形状态，随着时间的变化还需要参考的工程经验，分析，判断。第二个原因是新的工程实践是为了揭示新问题。例如，一个高层建筑，超高层塔桅和大跨桥梁建设，风的阻力，地震工程突出问题，以及发展新的理论和技术。为了在技术，经济上与建筑物艺术气息相互统一人们想要最经济

65、的建立一个研发基地，以满足用户的需求，包括审美要求。这是一个将经济和技术活动密切的联系在一起的项目。这个项目的经济表现在项目工地一开始就整体规划，其次是在设计和施工的技术性能。该项目建设总投资，项目建成后经济效益时期和维修费用的使用是衡量经济的一个重要的方面。将密切接触的这些技术问题加以考虑。为了满足民用工程设施，作为艺术空间的功能要求，首先是通过结构本身的总体布局，对各个地方的尺寸大小，颜色，光影及周围环境的阴影，包括其与自然和谐协调的表现，然后由其他工程设施通过在建筑装饰反映。装饰工程设施和形状也可以显示的地方风格，民族风格和时间风格。土木工程在长期实践中，不仅对房屋建筑艺术给予极大关注，不但工程项目上，而且也为其他工程设施取得了杰出成就，通过不同的建筑材料，如选择使用石，钢和钢筋混凝土与非常多非常好的建造艺术自然环境优美