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英文技术资料及中文翻译中文翻译 机械设计及最优设计 机械设计是一门通过设计新产品或者改进老产品,满足人类需求的应用技术科学。它涉及工程技术各个领域,主要研究产品的尺寸、形状和详细结构的基本构思,还要研究产品在制造、销售和使用等方面的问题。进行各种机械设计工作的人员通常被称为设计人员或者设计工程师。机械设计是一门创造性的工作。设计工程师不仅在工作上面有创新性,还必须在机械制图、运动学、运力学、工程材料、材料力学和机械制造工艺等方面有深厚的基础知识。如前面所述,机械设计的目的是生产满足人类的需求的产品。发明、发现和科学知识本身并不一定能给人类带来好处,只有当它们被用在产品上才能产生效益。因而,应该认识到在一个特定产品进行设计之前,必须先确定人们是否需要这种产品。应当把机械设计看成是设计人员运用创造性的才能进行产品设计、系统分析和制订产品的制造工艺的一个良机。掌握工程基础知识要比熟记一些数据和公式更为重要。仅仅使用数据和公式是不足在一个好的设计中做出所需的全部决定的。另一方面,应该认真精确地进行所有的运算。例如,即使将一个小数点的位置放错,也会是正确的设计变成错误的。一个好的设计人员应该勇于提出新的想法,而且愿意承担一定的风险;但新的方法不使用时,就恢复采用原来的方法。因此,设计人员必须要有耐心,因为所花费的时间和努力并不能保证带来成功。一个全新的设计,要摒弃许多许多陈旧的的,为人们所熟知的方法。由于许多人易于墨守陈规,这样做并不是件容易的事情。一位设计过程师应该不断地探索改进现有产品的方法,在此过程中应该认真选择原有的、经过验证的设计原理,将其与未经过验证的新观念结合起来。新设计本身会有许多缺陷和未能预料的问题发生,只有当这些缺陷和问题被解决之后,才能体现出新产品的优越性。因此,一个性能优越的产品诞生的同时,也伴随着较高的风险。应该强调的是,如果设计本身不要求采用全新的方法,就没必要仅仅为了变革的目的而采用新的方法。在设计的在设计的初始阶段,应该允许设计人员充分发挥创造性,不受各种约束。即使产生了许多不切实际的想法,也会在设计的早期,即绘制图纸之前被改正掉。只有这样,才不致于堵塞创新的思路。通常,要提出几套设计方案,然后加以比较。很有可能在最后选定的方案中,采用了某些未被接受的方案中的一些想法。心理学家经常谈论如何使人们适应他们所操作的机器。设计人员的基本职责是努力使机器来适应人们。这并不是一项容易的工作,因为实际上并不存在着一个对所有人来说都是最优的操作范围和操作过程。另一个重要问题,设计工程师必须能够同其他有关人员进行交流和磋商。在开始阶段,设计人员必须就初步设计同管理人员进行交流和磋商,并得到批准。这一般是通过口头讨论,草图和文字材料进行的。为了进行有效的交流 ,需要解决下列问题:(1) 所设计的这个产品是否真正为人们所需要?(2) 此产品与其他公司的现有同类产品相比有无竞争能力?(3) 生产这种产品是否经济?(4) 产品的维修是否方便?(5) 产品有无销路?是否可以盈利? 只有时间能对上述问题给出正确答案。但是, 产品的设计、制造和销售只能在对上述问题的初步肯定答案的基础上进行。设计工程师还应该通过零件图和装配图,与制造部门一起对最终设计方案进行磋商。通常 ,在制造过程中会出现某个问题。可能会要求对某个零件尺寸或公差作一些更改,使零件的生产变得容易。但是,工程上的更改必须要经过设计人员批准,以保证不会损伤产品的功能。有时,在产品的装配时或者装箱外运前的试验中才发现设计中的某种缺陷。这些事例恰好说明了设计是一个动态过程。总是存在着更好的方法来完成设计工作,设计人员应该不断努力,寻找这些更好的方法。近些年来,工程材料的选择已经显得重要。此外,选择过程应该是一个对材料的连续不断的重新评价过程。新材料不断出现,而一些原有的材料的能够获得的数量可能会减少。环境污染、材料的回收利用、工人的健康及安全等方面经常会对材料选择附加新的限制条件。为了减轻重量或者节约能源,可能会要求使用不同的材料。来自国内和国际竞争、对产品维修保养方便性要求的提高和顾客的反馈等方面的压力,都会促使人们对材料进行重新评价。由于材料选用不当造成的产品责任诉讼,已经产生了深刻的影响。此外,材料与材料加工之间的相互依赖关系已经被人们认识得更清楚。因此,为了能在合理的成本和确保质量的前提下获得满意的结果,设计工程师的制造工程师都必须认真仔细地选择、确定和使用材料。制造任何产品的第一步工作都是设计。设计通常可以分为几个明确的阶段:(a)初步设计;(b)功能设计;(c)生产设计。在初步设计阶段,设计者着重考虑产品应该具有的功能。通常要设想和考虑几个方案,然后决定这种思想是否可行;如果可行,则应该对其中一个或几个方案作进一步的改进。在此阶段,关于材料选择唯一要考虑的问题是:是否有性能符合要求的材料可供选择;如果没有的话,是否有较大的把握在成本和时间都允许的限度内研制出一种新材料。在功能设计和工程设计阶段,要做出一个切实可行的设计。在这个阶段要绘制出相当完整的图纸,选择并确定各种零件的材料。通常要制造出样机或者实物模型,并对其进行试验,评价产品的功能、可靠性、外观和维修保养性等。虽然这种试验可能会表明,在产品进入到生产阶段之前,应该更换某些材料,但是,绝对不能将这一点作为不认真选择材料的借口。应该结合产品的功能,认真仔细地考虑产品的外观、成本和可靠性。一个很有成就的公司在制造所有的样机时,所选用的材料应该和其生产中使用的材料相同,并尽可能使用同样的制造技术。这样对公司是很有好处的。功能完备的样机如果不能根据预期的销售量经济地制造出来,或者是样机与正式生产的装置在质量和可靠性方面有很大不同,则这种样机就没有多大的价值。设计工程师最好能在这一阶段完全完成材料的分析、选择和确定工作,而不是将其留到生产设计阶段去做。因为,在生产设计阶段材料的更换是由其他人进行的,这些人对产品的所有功能的了解不如设计工程师。在生产设计阶段中,与材料有关的主要问题是应该把材料完全确定下来,使它们与现有的设备相适应,能够利用现有设备经济地进行加工,而且材料的数量能够比较容易保证供应。在制造过程中,不可避免地会出现对使用中的材料做一些更改的情况。经验表明,可采用某些便宜材料作为替代品。然而,在大多数情况下,在进行生产以后改换材料要比在开始生产前改换材料所花费的代价要高。在设计阶段做好材料选择工作,可以避免多数这样的情况。在生产制造开始后出现了可供使用的新材料是更换材料的最常见的原因。当然,这些新材料可能降低成本、改进产品的性能。但是,必须对新材料进行认真的评价,以确保其所有性能都满足要求。应当记住,新材料的性能和可靠性很少像现有材料那样为人们所了解。大部分的产品失效和产品责任事故案件是由于在选用新材料作为替代材料之前,没有真正了解它们的长期使用性能而引起的。产品的责任诉讼迫使设计人员和公司在选择材料时,采用最好的程序。在材料过程中,五个最常见的问题为:(a)不了解或者不会使用关于材料应用方面的最新最好的信息资料;(b)未能预见和考虑擦黑年品可能的合理用途(如有可能,设计人员还应进一步预测和考虑由于产品使用方法不当造成的后果。在近年来的许多产品责任诉讼案件中,由于错误地使用产品而受到伤害的原告控告生产厂家,并且赢得判决);(c)所使用的材料的数据不全或是有些数据不确定,尤其是当其长期性能数据是如此的时候;(d)质量控制方法不适当和未经验证;(e)由一些完全不称职的人员选择材料。通过对上述五个问题的分析,可以得出这些问题是没有充分理由存在的结论。对这些问题的研究分析可以为避免这些问题的出现指明方向。尽管采用最好的材料选择方法也不能避免发生产品责任诉讼,设计人员和工业界按照适当的程序进行材料选择,可以大大减少诉讼的数量。从以上的讨论可以看出,选择材料的人们应该对材料的性质,特点和加工方法有一个全面而基本的了解。当加工铝时,我们主要关心的是:铝粘住加工切削边缘的倾向;保证有好的碎片排屑形成切削边缘;和保证工具有足够的中心强度来承受切削力而不被破坏。技术发展,比如:Makino MAG系列,已经使工具商重新考虑任何工艺水平的机器技术。用正确的加工和编程思路是很重要的。材料,涂料和几何形状是与减小我们所关注问题相关系的工具设计的三个因素。如果这些因素不能一起很好的配合,成功的调整磨削是不可能的。为了成功进行高速铝加工,理解这三个因素是很必要的。使组合边缘最小化当加工铝时,一个失败的切削工具模式是,被加工的材料粘住工具切削边缘。这种情况会很快削弱工具的切削能力。由粘着的铝形成的组合边缘会导致工具变钝,以至不能切削材料。工具材料选择和工具涂料选择是被工具设计者用来减小组合边缘出现的主要工艺。亚微米微粒碳化物材料要求很高的钴浓度来获得良好的微粒结构和材料强度属性。随着温度的升高,钴与铝发生反应,钴使铝与暴露的工具材料碳化物相粘合。一旦铝开始粘住工具,铝会在快速的在工具上形成组合边缘,使工具不可用。在切削的进程中,减小铝粘合着的工具的暴露碳化物的秘诀就是找到正确的碳化物的平衡来提供足够的材料强度。在加工铝时,为了减小粘附,使用能提供足够硬度的纹理粗糙的碳化物来获得平衡,来使变钝变慢。工具涂料当尝试减小组合边缘时,第二个应该考虑的工具设计因素是工具涂料。工具涂料的选择包括:TiN, TiAIN, AITiN,铬氮化物,锆氮化物,钻石和钻石般的涂料(DLC)。拥有这么多的选择,航空航天磨削商店需要知道在铝的高速加工应用中哪一种工作最有效。TiN, TiCN, TiAIN, 和 AITiN工具的PVD涂装应用进程使这些选项不合适铝的应用。PVD涂装进程建立了两个使铝粘住工具的模式-表面的粗糙程度和铝与工具涂料之间的化学反应。PVD进程形成了一个表面,这表面是比底层材料更粗糙的。由这个进程形成的表面“凹凸”使工具中的铝在凹处快速集结。由于涂料有金属晶体和铁晶体特征,PVD涂料是可以和铝发生化学反应的。一种TiAIN涂料通常是包含铝的,这铝很容易和相同材料的切削表面粘合。表面粗糙度和化学反应特性将会导致工具和工作片体粘在一起,以致形成组合表面。OSG Tap and Die主导的试验中,人们发现在高速加工铝时,一个没有涂染过纹理粗糙的碳化物的工具的表面优于用TiN, Ticn, TiAIN, 或者ALTiN涂染过的工具。这个试验不意味着所有工具涂料将减小工具的表现。钻石和DLC涂料可生成一个非常光滑的化学惰性的表面。在切削铝材料时,这些涂料很认为是能非常有效的提高工具的寿命。钻石涂料被认为是表现最佳的涂料,但这种涂料要一个很可观的成本。对于表现价值,DLC涂料提供最佳成本,增加大约20%-25%的总工具成本,而寿命相对于未涂染过纹理粗糙的碳化物的工具来是,是增长得很明显的。几何形状高速铝加工工具设计的拇指定律就是使微粒排屑空间最大化。这是因为铝是一种非常柔软的材料。Federate通常是可以增长的,它生成更多更大的微粒。Makino MAG-Series航空航天磨削机器,比如MAG4,要求额外关注工具几何休和工具强度。拥有强大的80-hp的心轴的 MAG-Series机器将折断工具如果他们不是用足够的中心强度设计的。总的来说,锋利的切削边缘一直都可以用来避免铝的延伸。一个锋利的切削边缘将形成高剪切和高表面清洁,形成一个更好的表面和使表面振动最小化。结果是用优良的纹理碳化物材料比纹理粗糙的碳化物材料更有可能获得一个锋利的切削边缘。但由于铝能粘住纹理好的材料,长久保持这各边缘是不太可能的。粗略的折衷方案纹理粗糙的材料是最好的折衷。那是一种很强大的材料,它能拥有一个可观的切削边缘。试验结果表明;在获得长的工具寿命的同时拥有好的表面的可以的。通过工具来进行油雾冷却是可以改进切削边缘的保持的。雾化逐渐使工具冷却,消除温度急增的问题。螺旋角度是一个额外的工具几何考虑因素。传统上来说,当加工铝时,带有高螺旋角度的工具已经被运用。高螺旋角度可以使微粒更快地从部分脱离,但却增加力和热,这是由切削运动导致的。一个高螺旋角被用在工具上,并且很大数量的凹槽可以使微粒排泄。当以非常高的速度加工铝时,由增加的力形成的热量可能会引起微粒与工具焊接在一起。此外,一个有很高螺旋角的切削表面将比低角度的更快产生微粒。仅仅利用两个凹槽工具设计使低螺旋角和足够微粒排泄区域成为可能。由OSG主导的延伸性试验中,当发展新工具流水线时,这被证明是最成功的方法。英文技术资料Mechanical Design and Optimum DesignMechanical design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also consideration the various factors involved in the manufacture and use of the product.People who perform the various function of mechanical design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Mechanical design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, material engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of mechanical design is to product which will serve a need for man. Invention, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Mechanical design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovation talents to envision a design of a product, to analyze the system and then make sound judgments on how the product is to be manufacture. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions required to produce a good design. On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that if the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have “bugs” or unforeseen problem which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design dose not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change. During the beginning stage of design, creativity should be allowed to flourish to without a great number of constraints. Even thought many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which is ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected design that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no person for which certain operating dimension and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originator were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communicate available to us. There are the written, the oral, and the graphical form. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possible of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to a company every really creative idea. There is a great deal to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the final analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all. To communicate effectively, the fowling questions must be answered:Dose the design really sever a human need?Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?Is it economical to produce?Can it be readily maintained?Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding question, but the product should be design, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answer. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem will occur during the manufacturing cycle. It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerance of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This fall in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other case, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards findings that better way.The primary tooling concerns when machining aluminum are: minimizing the tendency of aluminum to stick to the tool cutting edges; ensuring there is good chip evacuation form the cutting edge; and ensuring the core strength of the tools is sufficient to withstand the cutting forces without breaking.Technological developments such as the Makino MAG-Series machines have made tooling vendors rethink the any state-of-the-art machine technology. It is vital to apply the right tooling and programming concepts.Materials coatings and geometry are the three elements in tool design that interrelate to minimize these concerns. If these three elements do not work together, successful high-speed milling is not possible. It is imperative to understand all three of these elements in order to be successful in the high-speed machining of aluminum.Minimize Built-Up Eagled. The surface peaks and valleys” created by this process causes aluminum to rapidly collect in the valleys on the tool. In addition, the PVD coating is chemically reactive to the aluminum due to its metallic crystal and ionic crystal features. A TiAIN coating actually contains aluminum, which easily bonds with a cutting surface of the same material. The surface roughness and chemical reactivity attributes will cause the tool and work piece to stick together, thus creating the built-up edge.In testing performed by OSG Tap and Die, it was discovered that when machining aluminum at very high speeds, the performance of an uncoated coarse-grained carbide tool was superior to that of one coated with TiN, Ticn, TiAIN, or ALTiN. This testing does not mean that all tool coatings will reduce the tool performance. The diamond and DLC coatings result in a very smooth chemically inert surface. These coatings have been found to significantly improve tool life when cutting aluminum materials.The diamond coatings were found to be the best performing coatings, but there is a considerable cost related to this type of coating. The DLC coatings provide the best cost for performance value, adding about 20%-25%to the total tool cost. But, this coating extends the tool life significantly as compared to an uncoated coarse-grained carbide tool.GeometryThe rule of thumb for high-speed aluminum machining tooling designs is to maximize space for chip evacuation. This is because aluminum is a very soft material, and the federate is usually increased which creates more and bigger chips.The Makino MAG-Series aerospace milling machines, such as the MAG4, require an additional consideration for tool geometry-tool strength. The MAG-Series machines with their powerful 80-hp spindles will snap the tools if they are not designed with sufficient core strength.In general, sharp cutting edges should always be used to avoid aluminum elongation. A sharp cutting edge will create high shearing and also high surface clearance, creating a better surface finish and finish and minimizing chatter or surface vibration. The issue is that it is possible to achieve a sharper cutting edge with the fine-grained carbide material than the coarse grained material. But due to aluminum adherence to the fine-grained material, it is not possible to maintain that edge for very long.Coarse compromiseThe coarse grained material appears to be the best compromise. It is a strong material that can have a reasonable cutting edge. Test results show it is able to achieve a very long tool life with good surface finish. The maintenance of the cutting edge is improved using an oil mist coolant through the tool. Misting gradually cools down the tools, eliminating thermal shock problems.The helix angle is an additional tool geometry consideration. Traditionally when machining aluminum a fool with a high helix angle has been used. A high helix angle lifts the chip away from the paWhen machining aluminum, one of the major failure modes of cutting tools the material being machined adheres to the tool cutting edge. This condition rapidly degrades the cutting ability of the tool. The built-up edge that is generated by the adhering aluminum dulls the tool so it can no longer cut through the material. Tool material selection and tool coating selection are the two primary techniques used by tool designers to reduce occurrence of the built-up edge.The sub-micron grain carbide material requires a high cobalt concentration to achieve the fine grain structure and the materials strength properties. Cobalt reacts with aluminum at elevated temperatures, which causes the aluminum to chemically bond to the exposed cobalt of the tool material. Once the aluminum starts to adhere to the tool, it quickly forms a built-up edge on the tool rendering it ineffective.The secret is to find the right balance of cobalt to provide adequate material strength, while minimizing the exposed cobalt in the tools for aluminum adherence during the cutting process. This balance is achieved using coarse-grained carbide that provides a tool of sufficient hardness so as to not dull quickly when machining aluminum while minimizing adherence.Tool coatingsThe second tool design element that must be considered when trying to minimize the built-up edge is the tool coating. Tool coating choices include TiN, TiAIN, AITiN, chrome nitrides, zirconium nitrides, diamond, and diamond-like coatings(DLC). With so many choices, aerospace milling shops need to know which one works best in an aluminum high-speed machining application.The Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) coating application process on TiN, TiCN, TiAIN, and AITiN tools makes them unsuitable for an aluminum application. The PVD coating process creates two modes for aluminum to bond to the tools :the surface roughness and the chemical reactivity between the aluminum and the tool coating.The PVD process results in surface that is rougher that the substrate material to which it is app rt more quickly, but increases the friction and heat generated as result of the cutting action. A high helix angle is typically used on a tool with a higher number of flutes to quickly evacuate the chip from the part.When machining aluminum at very high speeds the heat created by the increased friction may cause the chips to weld to the tool. In addition, a cutting surface with a high helix angle will chip more rapidly that a tool with a low helix angle. A tool design that utilizes only two flutes enables both a low helix angle and sufficient chip evacuation area. This is the approach that has proven to be the most successful in extensive testing performed by OSG when developing the new tooling line, the MAX AL.- 13 -
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