给老外科普中国历史

History of ChinaPreface:We have a big familyv1.China has a land area of 9.6 millions square kilometers,making it the third-biggest country in the world.v2.China is a unified,multi-national country,with 56 nationalities in all.v3.A country with a population of 1.3 billion.Many famous archeology and beautiful scenery in this land crowdedPangu（The Very Beginning of Chinese Civilization)vChinese civilization，as described in mythology，begins with Pangu，the creator of the universe，and a succession of legendary sage-emperors and culture heroes（among them are Huang Di，Yao，and Shun）who taught the ancient Chinese to communicate and to find sustenance，clothing，and shelter.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Xia Dynasty is the first unified country in Chinese history,20701600 BC,established its capital in Anyi (red point)v 今山西夏县 The First Prehistoric DynastyXia is the first prehistoric dynasty.From about the twenty-first to the sixteenth century B.C，scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Anyang，Henan Province.In regard to the Xia，it was difficult to separate myth from reality.By now，archaeologists have uncovered urban sites，bronze implements，and tombs that point to the existence of Xia civilization in the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts.At minimum，the Xia period marked an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures and the typical Chinese urban civilization of the Shang dynasty.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvShang dynasty(1600-1046 B.C.),established capital in Shangqiu(early)and Anyang(late).vShang dynasty endured roughly from 1700 to 1027 B.C.The Shang dynasty（also called the Yin dynasty in its later stages）is believed to have been founded by a rebel leader who overthrew the last Xia ruler.Its civilization was based on agriculture，augmented by hunting and animal husbandry.Two important events of the period were the development of a writing system，as revealed in archaic Chinese inscriptions found on tortoise shells and flat cattle bones，and the use of bronze metallurgy.A number of ceremonial bronze vessels with inscriptions date from the Shang period；the workmanship on the bronzes attests to a high level of civilization.Brief introduction of Chinese historyZhou Dynasty replaced the Shang Dynasty in the 1029BC,established its capital in Xian.We call it West Zhou Dynasty(1029-771BC).Three hundreds years later,the empire moved its capital to Luoyang,be called East Zhou Dynasty(770-256BC).vAccording to standard Chinese accounts，the last Shang ruler，a despot was overthrown by a chieftain of a frontier tribe called Zhou，which had settled in the Wei Valley in modern Shaanxi Province.The Zhou dynasty had its capital at Hao，near the city of Xian，or Changan，as it was known in its heyday in the imperial period.vIn 771 B.C，The capital was moved eastward to Luoyang in present-day Henan Province.Because of this shift，historians divide the Zhou era into Western Zhou（1027-771 B.C.）and Eastern Zhou（770-221 B.C.）。And Eastern Zhou divides into two subperiods.The first，from 770 to 476 B.C.，is called the Spring and Autumn Period；the second is known as the Warring States Period（475-221 B.C.）。vSharing the language and culture of the Shang，the early Zhou rulers，through conquest and colonization，gradually sinicized，that is，extended Shang culture through much of China Proper north of the Chang Jiang（or Yangtze River）。The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other，from 1027 to 221 B.C.Initially from Shang，there waw the notion that the ruler（the son of heaven）governed by divine right but that his dethronement would prove that he had lost the mandate.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvIn the following five hundreds years,The East Zhou Dynasty(770-256BC)divides into many small states.The states fight with each other,which lasts for 250 years,we also call this age Warring StatesBrief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Qin Dynasty reunited china again in 221BC.v(221-207BC)vXian(capital)In 221 B.C，much of what came to constitute China Proper was unified for the first time.In subjugating the six other major states of Eastern Zhou，the Qin kings had relied heavily on Legalist scholar-advisers.Centralization，achieved by ruthless methods，was focused on standardizing legal codes and bureaucratic procedures，the forms of writing and coinage，and the pattern of thought and scholarship.To silence criticism of imperial rule，the kings banished or put to death many dissenting Confucian scholars and confiscated and burned their books.To fend off barbarian intrusion，the fortification walls built by the various warring states were connected to make a 5，000-kilometer-long great wall.Revolts broke out as soon as the first Qin emperor died in 210 B.C.The imperial system initiated during the Qin dynasty，however，set a pattern that was developed over the next two millenniaBrief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Han Dynasty became Chinas new empire in 206BC,established its capital in Xian,we call it the West Han Dynasty in the history.It moved the capital to Luoyang in 25,called East Han Dynasty.v(206BC220)vAnother new dynasty，called Han（206 B.C.-A.D.220），emerged with its capital at Changan.The new empire retained much of the Qin administrative structure but retreated a bit from centralized rule.Confucian ideals of government，were adopted as the creed of the Han empire.Intellectual，literary，and artistic endeavors revived and flourished.The Han period produced Chinas most famous historian，Sima Qian（145-87 B.C.？），whose Shiji（Historical Records）provides a detailed chronicle from the time of a legendary Xia emperor to that of the Han emperor Wu Di（141-87 B.C.）。Technological advances also marked this period.After 200 years，Han rule was interrupted briefly（in A.D.9-24 by Wang Mang，a reformer），and then restored for another 200 years.And A.D.220 the Han empire collapsed.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Han Dynasty is split into three states,they are:Wei,Shu,Wu.The three countries fight with each other for more than 60 years.vHundreds of thousands of people are killde in the war.vThe collapse of the Han dynasty was followed by nearly four centuries of rule by warlords.The age of civil wars and disunity began with the era of the Three Kingdoms（Wei，Shu，and Wu，which had overlapping reigns during the period A.D.220-80）。In later times，fiction and drama greatly romanticized the reputed chivalry of this period.Unity was restored briefly in the early years of the Jin dynasty（A.D.265-420），but the Jin could not long contain the invasions of the nomadic peoples.In A.D.317 the Jin court was forced to flee from Luoyang and reestablished itself at Nanjing to the south.The transfer of the capital coincided with Chinas political fragmentation into a succession of dynasties that was to last from A.D.304 to 589.During this period the process of sinicization accelerated among the non-Chinese arrivals in the north and among the aboriginal tribesmen in the south.This process was also accompanied by the increasing popularity of Buddhism（introduced into China in the first century A.D.）in both north and south China.Despite the political disunity of the times，there were notable technological advances.The invention of gunpowder（at that time for use only in fireworks）and the wheelbarrow is believed to date from the sixth or seventh century.Advances in medicine，astronomy，and cartography are also noted by historians.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Jin Dynasty unified the whole country in 265,established its capital in Luoyang,called East Jin Dynasty.v(265316)Brief introduction of Chinese historyvThe West Jin Dynasty was attacked by other countries,became smaller and smaller,it had no choice but moved its capital to Nanjing,called East Jin Dynasty.v(317420)vUnity was restored briefly in the early years of the Jin dynasty（A.D.265-420），but the Jin could not long contain the invasions of the nomadic peoples.In A.D.317 the Jin court was forced to flee from Luoyang and reestablished itself at Nanjing to the south.The transfer of the capital coincided with Chinas political fragmentation into a succession of dynasties that was to last from A.D.304 to 589.vDuring the process of sinicization accelerated among the non-Chinese arrivals in the north and among the aboriginal tribesmen in the south.This process was also accompanied by the increasing popularity of Buddhism in both north and south China.Despite the political disunity of the times，there were notable technological advances.The invention of gunpowder and the wheelbarrow is believed to date from the sixth or seventh century.Advances in medicine，astronomy，and cartography are also noted by historians.Brief introduction of Chinese historyFrom 420 to 581,China was split into many parts.Flames of war burn up on the land again,lasted three hundred years.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvSui Dynasty unified China in the 581,became the powerful empire,but the Sui Dynasty was a short-lived Dynasty,it was replaced by the Tang Dynasty in the 681.Luoyang is the capital.vChina was reunified in A.D.589 by the short-lived Sui dynasty（A.D.581-617），which has often been compared to the earlier Qin dynasty in the ruthlessness of its accomplishments.vThe Sui dynastys early demise was attributed to the governments tyrannical demands on the people，who bore the crushing burden of taxes and compulsory labor.These resources were overstrained in the completion of the Grand Canal，and in the undertaking of other construction projects，including the reconstruction of the Great Wall.vWeakened by costly and disastrous military campaigns against Korea in the early seventh century，the dynasty disintegrated through a combination of popular revolts，disloyalty，and assassination.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Tang Dynasty(618907)is very famous in the world,and very powerful and rich.vIt has two capital,Xian and Luoyang.vThe Tang dynasty（A.D.618-907），with its capital at Changan，is regarded by historians as a high point in Chinese civilizationequal，or even superior，to the Han period.vIts territory，acquired through the military exploits of its early rulers，was greater than that of the Han.Stimulated by contact with India and the Middle East，the empire saw a flowering of creativity in many fields.Buddhism became a permanent part of Chinese traditional culture.Block printing was invented，making the written word available to vastly greater audiences.vThe Tang period was the golden age of literature and art.A government system supported by a large class of Confucian literati selected through civil service examinations was perfected under Tang rule.vBy the middle of the eighth century A.D.，Tang power had ebbed.Domestic economic instability and military defeat in 751 by Arabs，marked the beginning of five centuries of steady military decline for the Chinese empire.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvAfter 300 years,the Tang Empire was destroyed.vTime come to Five Dynasties and Ten KingdomsBrief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Song Dynasty unified most of china from 900 to 1279.But the empire is very weak,so that wars never stopped in the land.China needs a strong,unified government.vBut in 960 a new power，Song（960-1279），reunified most of China Proper.The Song period divides into two phases：Northern Song（960-1127）and Southern Song（1127-1279）。The division was caused by the forced abandonment of north China in 1127 by the Song court，which could not push back the nomadic invaders.vThe founders of the Song dynasty built an effective centralized bureaucracy staffed with civilian scholar-officials.Regional military governors and their supporters were replaced by centrally appointed officials.This system of civilian rule led to a greater concentration of power in the emperor and his palace bureaucracy than had been achieved in the previous dynasties.vThe Song dynasty is notable for the development of cities not only for administrative purposes but also as centers of trade，industry，and maritime commerce.vCulturally，the Song refined many of the developments of the previous centuries.Included in these refinements were not only the Tang ideal but also historical writings，painting，calligraphy，and hard-glazed porcelain.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Yuan Dynasty(12061368)has the most vast territory in China history.vThe capital is Beijing,its the first time Beijing as the capital.v In 1206，Genghis Khan unified all the tribes in Mongolia and founded the Mongol Khanate.In 1271，his grandson，Kublai Khan，conquered the Central Plain，founded the Yuan Dynasty（1271-1368）and made Dadu（todays Beijing）the capital.During the Song and Yuan dynasties，handicraft industry and domestic and foreign trade boomed.Many merchants and travelers came from abroad.Marco Polo came from Venice and traveled extensively in China，later describing the countrys prosperity in his Travels.The four great inventions of the Chinese people in ancient times-paper making，printing，the compass and gunpowder-were further developed in the Song and Yuan dynasties，and introduced to foreign countries during this time，making great contributions to world civilization.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Ming Dynasty(13681644)is another unified,strong empire.vA nautical hero live in the age,named Zheng He.vBeijingvIn 1368，Zhu Yuanzhang founded the Ming Dynasty（1368-1644）in Nanjing，and reigned as Emperor Taizu.When his son，and successor，Zhu Di，ascended the throne，he started to build the palace，temples，city walls and moat in Beijing.In 1421，he officially made Beijing his capital.In the Ming Dynasty，remarkable progress was made in agricultural production and handicrafts，and toward the end of the dynasty，the rudiments of capitalism appeared.In addition，there were friendly contacts between China and other countries in Asia and Africa.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Qing Dynasty(16161911)promoted the Chinese ethnic fusionfjun vIn the late Ming Dynasty，the Manchus in northeast China grew in strength.Under the leadership of Nurhachi，the Manchus invaded the Central Plain for three generations in succession，and finally founded the Qing Dynasty（1644-1911）.The two most famous emperors of the Qing Dynasty were Emperor Kangxi（r.1661-1772）and Emperor Qianlong（r.1735-1796）.The Kangxi and Qianlong reign periods were known as the times of prosperity.During Qing rule，some novels of high artistic value were created，of which Cao Xueqins Dream of Red Mansions is the best known.It describes the decline of a prosperous feudal aristocratic family.Brief introduction of Chinese historyvThe Republic of China(19121949).vNanjing(capital)