语言学教程(胡壮麟)笔记

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1、LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1Why study language?1.Language is very essential to human beings.2.In language there are many things we should know.3.For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication.

2、It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the f

3、act that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles

4、of organization.1.3.3CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of

5、 creating endless sentences.1.3.4DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4Origin of language1.The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the so

6、unds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2.The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3.The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worke

7、d together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1.Referential: to convey message and information;2.Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3.Emotive: to

8、express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4.Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5.Phatic: to establish communion with others;6.Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that l

9、anguage has three metafunctions:1.Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2.Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3.Textual function: referring to the fact that language has me

10、chanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument

11、 of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status o

12、f persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotio

13、nal status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual

14、 content.1.5.6Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting.1.5.7Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” t

15、o talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7Main branches of lingu

16、istics1.7.1PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.

17、7.3MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. 1.7.5SemanticsSemantics examines how mea

18、ning is encoded in a language.1.7.6PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics

19、 investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteri

20、stics of its users.1.8.3Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce hu

21、man language.1.9Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon the

22、m other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Dont say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People dont say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in p

23、rescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of

24、 prescription.1.9.2Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussures diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time

25、would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficul

26、t to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to perso

27、nal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them th

28、e subject of linguistics.1.9.4Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and

29、understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speakers competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speakers performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believe

30、s that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomskys competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussures langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a pro

31、perty of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5Etic vs. emicThese two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohongs bo

32、ok, I can understand them better, but because they are vaguely mentioned in Hus book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. icywarmteaBeing etic means researchers making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonet

33、ics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigators ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations o

34、f (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas ph

35、onemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1Why study language?1.Language is very essential to human beings.2.In language there are many things we should know.3.For further unders

36、tanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can

37、 distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of t

38、he primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeated

39、ly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and spac

40、e) at the moment of conversation.1.4Origin of language1.The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2.The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive soun

41、ds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3.The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six function

42、s:1.Referential: to convey message and information;2.Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3.Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4.Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5.Phatic: to establish communion with others;6.Metalingual: to clea

43、r up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1.Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2.Interpersonal function: embodying all use of l

44、anguage to express social and personal relationships;3.Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuangl

45、in, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their st

46、atus in a society.1.5.3PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4Emotive functi

47、onThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Goo

48、d morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting.1.5.7Metalingual fu

49、nctionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It

50、 studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7Main branches of linguistics1.7.1PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2PhonologyPhonology stu

51、dies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form se

52、ntences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. 1.7.5SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from mic

53、rolinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term whic

54、h covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4Computational linguisticsComputa

55、tional linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and

56、record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example,

57、“Dont say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People dont say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly

58、descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussures diachronic description is the study of a

59、 language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachr

60、onic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomen

61、a or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules

62、from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and th

63、e actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speakers competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychol

64、ogical and social factors. So a speakers performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomskys competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussures langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociol