写作篇Chapter Two Means of Paragragh Development

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1、Part One Paragraph WritingPart One Paragraph WritingChapter Two Means of Paragraph Chapter Two Means of Paragraph DevelopmentDevelopmentII. Development by ExamplesI. Logical Order of Paragraph III. Development by Time OrderV. Development By Spatial OrderIV. Development by Process. Development by Cau

2、se and EffectVIII. Comparison /ContrastIX. Development by Combination of MethodsVII. Development by Classification1. Logical Order of a ParagraphA fourth way to achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of logical order. Your choice of one kind of logical order over another will, o

3、f course, depend on your topic and on your purpose. You may even combine two or more different logical orders in the same paragraph. The important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some kind of order that is logical to a reader accustomed to the English way of writing.1. Pretest Read the

4、 two groups of sentences below. Then rearrange them in logical order. Use the transition words and phrases and other clues to help you. Finally, rewrite the sentences as a paragraph.Group 1: F，G，B，A，D，C，EGroup 2: D，E，A，C，F，B2.Logical Developments Some common kinds of logical order in English are chr

5、onological order development by time or process; analysis- logical division of ideas; comparison or contrast; cause and effect, etc. Each kind of order has its own special words and phrases to show the relationships among the ideas. For example,chronological orderfirst, next, after that, finally, be

6、fore the last war, after 1990, since then, in 2010, while working on the project, etc. showing difference or contrastthe most noticeable difference, larger than, unlike, on the other hand, in contrast, differ from, etc.showing similarities or comparisonsimilarity, similarly, as expensive as, just as

7、, just like, compare with, in comparison, etc.analysis Ideas are put into groups, and each group is discussed one after the other.first, second, third, etc.Paragraph 2Kinds of logical order: Chronological orderTransitional signals: and so, Then in 46 B.C.E., and, not onlybut also, but, so in 1582, b

8、utEXERCISESRead the following paragraphs and decide which kind of logical order is used in each one. Give the reasons for your choice. Circle all transition signals.Paragraph 1 Kinds of logical order: ContrastTransitional signals: for example, Furthermore, on the other hand, and, in contrast, but, I

9、n addition, whereas, howeverExamples and extended examples, which are anecdotes or short stories, are perhaps the easiest king of supporting details to use. You dont have to search in the library for information; you can often take examples from your own knowledge and personal experiences. Furthermo

10、re, examples are usually interesting and make your writing enjoyable to read. Finally, since it is easy to remember a striking example or a good story, your reader is more likely to remember your point.II. Development by Examples1. Pretest Read the paragraph on page 32 and page 33 and answer the que

11、stions.2. Examples There are two cautions you should keep in mind: First, use personal examples sparingly in formal academic writing because they are considered weak support. Second, be sure that your examples really prove your point.II. Development by ExamplesStudy the following model to see how ex

12、amples and extended examples can be used to support a topic sentence. Knowledge often results only after persistent investigation. Albert Einstein, after a lengthy examination of the characteristics of matter and energy, formulated his famous Theory of Relativity, whichnow acts as a basis for furthe

13、r research in nuclear physics. Using plaster casts of footprints, fingerprints, and stray strands of hair, a detective pertinaciously pursues the criminal. After years of work Annie Jump Cannon perfected the classification of the spectra of some 350,000 stars. Investigations into the causes of polio

14、 have provided us with the means for prevention and cure of this dreaded disease only after many years of research. As students, we too are determined in our investigation to find, retain, and contribute to the store of human knowledge.II. Development by Examples3. Extended ExamplesSometimes, it is

15、not enough to support your point simply with general examples. A more vivid and concrete illustration used as an extended example may light up an abstract idea and make it clear, interesting, memorable and convincing. Study the following model to see how extended examples can be used to support a to

16、pic sentence.II. Development by ExamplesII. Development by ExamplesNonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication, or “body language”, is communication by facial expression, head or eye movements, hand signals, and body postures. It can be just as important to understanding as words are. Misunderst

17、andingsoften amusing but sometimes serious can arise between people from different cultures if they misinterpret nonverbal signals. Take, for example, the difference in meanings of a gesture very common in the United States. A circle made with thumb and index finger. To an American, it mans that eve

18、ry thing is OK. II. Development by ExamplesTo a Japanese, it means that you are talking about money. In France, it means that something is worthless, and in Greece, it is an obscene gesture. Therefore, an American could unknowingly offended a Greek by using that particular hand signals.That followin

19、g incident illustrates how conflicting nonverbal signal can cause serious misunderstandings. While lecturing to his poetry class at Ain Shams University in Cairo, a British professor became so relaxed that he leaned back in his chair and reveal his bottom of his foot to the astonished class. Making

20、such a gesture in Muslim society is the worst kind of insult. The next day, the Cairo newspapers carried headlines about the student demonstration that resulted, and they denounced British arrogance and demanded that the professor be sent home. II. Development by Examples4. Transitional Signals for

21、Examples In developing a paragraph by examples, be careful to introduce examples with appropriate transitional signals. The following give commonly used transitions and their examples.Sentence Connectorsfor examplefor instanceOthersThe following example (story/incident) illustrates (shows/ demonstra

22、tes) .such asas in the case ofa good case in pointII. Development by ExamplesIII. Development by Time Order1. PretestRead the sentences below. Then rearrange them in logical order.Use the transitional words and phrases and other clues to help you. Finally, rewrite the sentences as a paragraph and te

23、ll on what principle you arrange the sentences.C，A，F，B，E，D，GIII. Development by Time Order2.Chronological OrderChronological order is one of the easiest methods of organization to master. Chronos is a Greek word meaning time. Chronological order, therefore, is a way of organizing the ideas in paragr

24、aph in the order of their occurrence in time.Chronological order is used for something as simple as a recipe and for something as complex as a history book. In academic writing, chronological order has many uses. One of primary ways you might use it is to write a historical narrative about the subje

25、ct of term paper.III. Development by Time Order There are two keys to writing a good chronological paragraph: 1. Discuss the events in the order in which they occur. 2. Use chronological transition signals to indicate the sequence of events. Analyze the following model paragraph for its organization

26、 by time. Underline any words or expressions that indicated time order III. Development by Time OrderThe Evolution of Computers In the relatively short span of sixty years, there has been an incredible evolution in the size and capabilities of computers. Today, computer chips smaller than the tip of

27、 your fingernail have the same capabilities as the room-sized machines of years ago. The first computers were developed around 1945. They were so large that they required special air-conditioned rooms. About 20 years later, in the 1960s, desk-sized computers were developed. This represented a gigant

28、ic advance. Before the end of that same decade, however, a third generation of computers, which used simple integrated circuits and which were III. Development by Time Ordereven smaller and faster, had appeared. In 1971, the first micro-processor, less than one square centimeter in size, was develop

29、ed. Today, modern microprocessors contain as many as 10 million transistors, and the number of transistors and the computational speed of microprocessors doubles every eighteen months.3. Topic Sentences for chronological Order The topic sentence of a chronological paragraph in some way indicates the

30、 time order. In the model , phrases such as : in the relatively short span of sixty years and evolution give the reader a hint that this is a chronological paragraph. III. Development by Time Order4. Transition Signals for Chronological OrderTransition signals are especially important in a chronolog

31、ical paragraph. You have to be very clear about the sequence of events: Did one event happen before, at the same time as, or after another event?III. Development by Time OrderTransition Words and Phrases first , first of all , soon second, after that, gradually next, finally, meanwhile now last Subo

32、rdinators after since as until as soon as when before whileIII. Development by Time OrderIII. Development by Time OrderOthers In the morningLast weekon the third dayduring the night Keep in mind that any time expression can serve as a chronological transition signal. III. Development by Time OrderEX

33、ERCISES1.Put a check in the space to the left of every topic sentence suggesting that a paragraph will be developed by time and underline the word or words that indicate chronological order. (1) A persons intelligence is the product of both heredity and environment.(2) The tensions that led to last

34、years student riots had been building for several years.(3) The life cycle of the Pacific salmon is a fascinating phenomenon. III. Development by Time Order(6) The worst day in my life was the day I left my family and my friends to come to the United States. (7) American directness often conflicts w

35、ith Asian modesty.(8) The two most publicized holidays in the United States are first, Christmas and second, Thanksgiving.(9)The traditions of Christmas originated in several different countries.(10) Every year, our family celebrates the Muslim holiday Ramadan in the same way. III. Development by Ti

36、me Order2.Fill in the blanks with appropriate chronological transition signals listed below.(1) From (2) until (3) When (4) 500years later (5) By the time (6) in 1776 (7) By midway through this century (8) from the beginning (9) to 1945 (10)NowIV. Development by ProcessChronological order is not jus

37、t used for historical narratives; it is also used in business, science, and engineering to explain processes and procedures. For example, chronological order would be used to explain how to take a photograph, how to perform a chemistry experiment, or how to set up an accounting system. Such paragrap

38、hs are called “how to” or “process” paragraphs.IV. Development by ProcessThere are two keys to developing a paragraph by process: 1. Discuss the steps in a process in the order in which they occur.2. Use chronological transition signals to indicate the sequence of steps. Analyze the following model

39、paragraph for its organization by time. Underline any words or expressions that indicated time orderIV. Development by ProcessCloning TechnologyThe cloning of Dolly involved several steps. First, cells that had previously been taken from Dollys mother were starved for five days, which caused them to

40、 stop dividing. This interruption of the cells division cycle made it easier for them to reprogram themselves to start growing a new organism. After five days, the nuclei of these cells were removed and transferred into an unfertilized sheep egg, from which the natural nucleus had previously been re

41、moved. In the next step, the egg was grown in the laboratory for a period of time. Then the egg was implanted into a different sheep, where it grew normally. When the sheep finally gave birth, the lamb was an exact genetic copy, or clone, of the sheep that had provided the transferred nucleus, not o

42、f the sheep that had provided the egg. IV. Development by ProcessIV. Development by ProcessTransitional signals are especially important in a paragraph developed by process. They clearly indicate the sequence of the process step by step. The commonly used transitional signals are as follows.first, s

43、econd, third, next; before, after; last, finally; not.until; the first step, the second step; meanwhile; as soon as, when; after that; now, thenIn giving instructions, imperative sentences and sentences with the indefinite pronoun you as the subject are often used. The present tense should be used i

44、f the instructions are still applicable.IV. Development by ProcessMouth- to-mouth Breathing Once you encounter a person who has stopped breathing, you should begin immediately to do mouth-to-mouth breathing. First, place the victim on his back and remove any foreign matter from his mouth with your f

45、ingers. Then tilt his head backwards, so that his chin is pointing up. Next, pull his mouth open and his jaw forward, pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his nose. Then place your mouth tightly over the victims. Blow into his mouth until you

46、 see his chest rise. Then turn your head to the side and listen for the onrush of air which indicates an air exchange. Repeat the process.EXERCISES1.Add appropriate chronological transitional signals to the following essay and punctuate them. How to Reduce the Danger of SmokingThe Department of Heal

47、th, Education and Welfare (HEW) has outlined some steps to take some of the danger out of smoking for those people who are unable to quit smoking outright. First, choose a cigarette with less tar Second, dont smoke your cigarette all the way down Third, take fewer draws on each cigarette, that is, F

48、ourth, reduce your inhaling Finally, smoke fewer cigarettes each dayIV. Development by ProcessBut think about the terrible diseases you are openingyou In short, if you follow each of these steps without cheating, you should be able to at least control the number of cigarettes you smoke daily.IV. Dev

49、elopment by ProcessV. Development By Spatial OrderWhen you need to describe something, a number of features should be mentioned: shape, size, color, location of parts and condition. You have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this you should find out the spac

50、e relationship between them and arrange your description accordingly from one point to another, such as from left to right (or right to left), from east to west (or west to east), top to bottom (or bottom to top), or inside to outside (or outside to inside). Read the following examples, pay attentio

51、n to the arrangements of the description and circle the words and phrases indicating position.V. Development By Spatial OrderExample 1 Mr. Cook, a renowned American historian, arranges the books on his bookshelves in a unique way. In the upper right hand corner, there are books about the development

52、 of the early colonies in New England and the War of Independence. Right under them can be found books on the slave trade, the plantation system and the growth of the southern states. The left side of the shelf contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of the Westward Movement, Indian culture,

53、the cowboys contributions to American society and the Gold Rush in California. From the description above, one can see that Mr. Cook regards hisbookshelves as a map of the U.S. and arranges his history books accordingly. It is odd, but it is convenient.The positions of the books are described in an

54、order that is easy to follow: first from the upper right to the lower right, and then to the left.V. Development By Spatial OrderV. Development By Spatial OrderExample 2 A water clock mainly consists of three parts, which are a kind of tank, a container and a cylinder. The tank on the left holds wat

55、er. This tank has a very narrow opening at the bottom on the right, and the water drips through this opening into the container, which is in the middle. This container has an object that floats in it and the end of the object is attached to a long pole with an arrow at the end. On the right there is

56、 a cylinder with the numbers one to twelve written on it.This paragraph describes the structure of a water clock by first mentioning its main parts, and then describing the machine part by part from left to right.V. Development By Spatial Orderabove below over underneathnear apart higher lowerbeside

57、 inside outside withinon one side on the other side at the frontat the back to the left to the right on the left-hand sideon the right-hand side in the middle close toon top of at the top of at the base of at the bottom ofIn developing a paragraph by space, you should give clear descriptions of posi

58、tions for each part of the object or place. The following words and phrases are very useful.EXERCISES1.Fill the blanks with appropriate positional words listed below. (1)From (2)to (3)bounded by (4)punctuated by (5)above (6)across (7)from (8)To (9)on (10)Within (11)in (12)remain in (13)along (14)in

59、(15)by (16)through (17)on (18)from within (19)over (20)atV. Development By Spatial Order3.Look at the plan of the garden below, and then write a description of it in space order. Sample Writing The garden is in the shape of a large rectangle. When you enter the garden from the gate on the western si

60、de, you can see a beautiful flowerbed in the northwestern corner of the garden, with tulips and roses of all colors. In your front is a broad and straight path leading directly to the greenhouse at the other side of the garden. On the right side of the main path is a large vegetable garden, where yo

61、u can find red tomatoes, green cucumbers, purple eggplants or yellowV. Development By Spatial Orderpumpkins in different seasons. On the left side of themain path is a curved path that leads further north to an attractive pond and then loops back to the main path.and the room of tropical plants on t

62、he left are the most attractive parts of the garden. The greenhouse is surrounded by apple trees to the north and partly to the west, which give shades for people at rest.V. Development By Spatial Order. Development by Cause and EffectA cause is what makes something happen. An effect is what happens

63、 because of the cause. In discussing cause and effect we are discussing why things happen. In practice, some sentences may stress cause, while others may place the chief emphasis upon effect. One cause can produce more than one effect and one effect can have more than one cause.1.Pretest Identify th

64、e cause and effect in each sentence. Circle the words and phrases indicating cause-and-effect relationship in the sentence. Note the part of emphasis and remember that a sentence may have more than one cause or effect. (page 44). Development by Cause and Effect2. Structural Words for Cause and Effec

65、t It is important to distinguish between causes and effects. A cause is the reason for something, which happens earlier. An effect is the result of something, which happens later. In a chain of events, an effect becomes the cause of another effect, and that effect becomes the cause of still another

66、effect, and so on. An example of cause and effect chain is as follows.EXAMPLE CAUSE People clear land for agriculture by cutting down trees. EFFECT The topsoil washes away. CAUSE People move into new areas and clear land for agriculture by cutting down trees. EFFECT The tree roots no longer hold the soil in place. CAUSE The tree roots dont hold the soil in place. EFFECT The topsoil washes away during heavy rains. CAUSE The topsoil washes away during heavy rains. EFFECT There is no good soil to g