建筑学毕业设计过程材料—外文翻译—王宗佳

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1、 （2013届）毕业设计文献翻译题 目：嘉兴市新城街道资产经营管理有限公司综 合楼工程建筑设计方案 姓名： 王 宗 佳 学 院： 建筑工程学院 专业： 建 筑 学 班级： 建筑082 学 号： 200851685212 指导教师： 王 德 海 导师学科： 高层建筑设计 导师职称： 讲 师 教务处制2011 年 11 月1 日 嘉兴学院外文文献翻译译文1外 文 题 目：SPACE EFFICIENCY IN HIGH-RISE OFFICE BUILDINGS 专业班级： 建筑082 学生姓名： 王宗佳 学号 200851685212 一、 外文原文SPACE EFFICIENCY IN HIG

2、H-RISE OFFICE BUILDINGSWriter: Ayin SEV and Aydan ÖZGENAbstract: High-rise office buildings, which are developed as a response to population growth, rapid urbanization and economic cycles, are indispensable for a metropolitan city development. This statement holds true for today; however, the r

3、elationship between cost and benefit is more complex in todays global marketplace. The space efficiency, as well as the shape and geometry of the high-rise building need to satisfy the value and cost of the development equation. Space efficiency, which is determined by the size of the floor slab, di

4、mension of the structural elements and rationalized core, goes along with the financial benefit.Keywords: high-rise office building; space efficiency ; floor slab; gross floor area ;net floor area; structural system, core configuration.By the end of 1990s, at more than 30 stories, net to gross floor

5、 area ratios of 70-75% were common in office buildings (Table 2) (Davis Langdon and Everest, 1997). However, Yeang (1995) stated in his book “The Skyscraper: Bioclimatic ally Considered” that net-to-gross floor area should not be less than 75%, while 80% to 85% is considered appropriate. Wherever th

6、e tall building is being constructed, achieving suitable space efficiency is not easy, since it is adversely affected by height as core and structural elements expand to satisfy the requirements of vertical circulation and resistance to lateral loads. Space efficiency can be increased by the lease s

7、pan, which is defined as the distance between the core and exterior wall. Factors affecting the design of high-rise buildings vary from country to country, such as local climate, zoning regulations, cultural conditions, technological opportunities, and etc. For instance, in Germany, where building c

8、odes dictate shallow floor slabs of 8.0 m, efficiencies of 60-70% are common, whereas Londons Canary Wharf Tower, can achieve a net to-gross ratio in excess of 80% with floor slabs of 2500 m2, and 11.0 m lease span. In this respect, when the high-rise office buildings of Turkey are investigated, con

9、ceivable space efficiency is not achieved when compared with the examples from the world. As Watts and et al. (2007) stated in their article that “fat is happy”, the highest office buildings of Turkey are happy, however, they are not so successful in respect to space efficiency. Therefore this resea

10、rch tends to compare and reveal the similarities and differences between the tallest office buildings at abroad and in Turkey in terms of space efficiency.DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR HIGH-RISE OFFICE BUILDINGSThe study is based on the ten tallest office buildings in the world and in Turkey individuall

11、y, which are registered by Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH, 2008) in November 2008 and also recorded in E (2008) and SkyscraperP (2008), as shown in Table1. All of the sample buildings are landmarks of their cities, and also are designed by internationally expertise design consult

12、ants, reflecting high quality practices in respect of efficient planning. The relevant building data are provided from the clients, architects, engineers, quantity surveyors, as well as journals, books, magazines and Internet sources. The research is based on the architectural and structural design

13、criteria affecting the space efficiency, such as floor slab size and layout, core integrity, gross and net floor areas, leasing depth, floor-to-floor and floor-to-ceiling height, and structural system.The sample buildings from the world are located in seven major cities, which are Taipei, Kuala Lump

14、ur, Shanghai, Chicago, Hong Kong, Guangzhou and Shenzhen. The height ranges of these buildings are between 367 m and 509 m, and the numbers of stories change from 69 to 114. The Empire State Building in New York, which is currently the ninth tallest office building of the world, is omitted, since it

15、 is constructed 78 years ago. The paper tends to take contemporary examples into consideration due to the rapid changes in tall building design and construction technologies.The list of the tallest buildings of Turkey in E (2008) and SkyscraperP (2008) comprise a large number of residential towers,

16、of which have been omitted from the list mentioned in this paper. Nine of ten selected examples of office buildings are located in İstanbul, whilethe remaining example, Mertim, is located in Mersin. Mertim, originally designed as an office building, is currently utilized as a hotel. The heights of t

17、hese buildings vary between 122 m and 181 m, while the numbers of storeys change between 22 to 52, as shown in Table 1.Architectural and structural requirements are the basic decision making parameters in the design of high-rise office buildings, and dictate the floor slab size and shape, leasing de

18、pth, structural frame, floor-to-floor height, vertical transportation and core layout. The related findings of the selected buildings from the world and Turkey are presented and discussed below.Floor Slab Size and ShapeAn office buildings floor slab size and shape, on which decisions are made accord

19、ing to the functional requirements, clients specific needs and various constraints, have great impact on the space efficiency and the buildings external character. Although there are no universal formulas for responding to the clients needs or to local influences and constraints such as climate, cod

20、es or constructional conditions, the fundamental design considerations are identical almost in office buildings (Kohn and Katz, 2002; Strelitz, 2005). The first aim is to achieve the maximum space efficiency and in order to accomplish this task, initially the floor slab shape and total floor area of

21、 the building need to be designed.The space efficiency of a high-rise office building can be achieved by maximizing the Gross Floor Area (GFA) and Net (usable) Floor Area (NFA) as permitted on the local site by the codes and regulations, and in order to enable the developer and owner to get maximum

22、returns from the high cost of land, the floors must have sufficient functional space (Kim and Elnimeiri, 2004). In the initial stages of the design, the designer ascertains the extent of GFA and NFA in the proposed concept design, and these figures are used as the bases for core configuration and st

23、ructural system. By the final decision, the NFA is sealed with the exact core area and the vertical structural elements. Net-to-gross floor area of a typical floor slab is of crucial economic interest to the developer, since it designates the space efficiency of the floors, at the same time as the m

24、ore efficient the typical floor slab is, the more usable area the developer gets and the more income is derived from the building.According to Yeang (1995; 2000), floor slab efficiency of a typical high-rise office building should generally not be less than 75%, unless the site is too small or too i

25、rregular to permit a higher level of space efficiency. Floor slab designs using clever devices, such as scissor stairs, pressurized lift shafts, dispersal of toilets etc. can increase efficiency up to 80% - 85 % per typical floor. However, as Watts et al. (2007) state in their recent article, floor

26、slab efficiency is adversely affected by the height of a high-rise office building, as the core and structural elements expand relatively to the overall floor slab to satisfy the requirements of vertical circulation as well as lateral-load resistance. Tall buildings with high slenderness ratio are i

27、nherently more expensive to build and suffer from adverse floor slab efficiency.Although space efficiency is simply defined as the ratio of NFA to GFA, the matter is more complicated in terms of its effects. The floor slab shape also has a vital importance as well, since it influences the interior s

28、pace planning, layout of office equipments, exterior building envelope, structural system and component sizes, utilizing from natural light and air, access to escape routes, etc. Generally the more simple and regular the floor slab shape is, the easier it is to respond to user requirements in terms

29、of space planning and furnishing. Square, circular, hexagonal, octagonal and similar plan forms are more space efficient than the rectangular plans with high aspect ratios and irregular shapes. Buildings with symmetrical plan shapes are also less susceptible to wind and seismic loads (Arnold, 1980;

30、Taranath, 1998; Kozak, 1991).The site areas of the selected examples from the world and Turkey are large due to their prestigious status, so the floor slab areas are not constrained by the maximum site coverage. The floor slab areas of buildings abroad are comparatively large due to their sheer heig

31、hts, and range from 2150 m2 to 4900 m2 in typical floors, whereas the buildings from Turkey have typical floor slab areas ranging from 700 m2 to 1406 m2 (Table 3). The space efficiency of the buildings at abroad change from 60% to 77% , and the Sears Tower achieves maximum efficiency with the value

32、of 77% , where as the Petronas Towers are least space efficient in typical floors. Garanti Bank Headquarters is a remarkable example having a high space efficiency of 77%, however, this building has multiple interior columns dispersed throughout the workspace, and these columns significantly prevent

33、 the flexibility of the usable area. The least space efficient example, the İ Bank Tower, has a relatively large core area;thus significantly decreasing the usable floor area. The selected office buildings from Turkey have different characteristics of plan geometry when compared with the ten tallest

34、 office buildings of the world. Only one case, İbank Tower has a plan shape derived from square, however, the core geometry do not match with the plan layout, thus disabling equal space efficiencies in each perimeter. Mertim and Süzer Plaza have rectangular plan forms with matching core geometr

35、ies, and though they are not symmetrical in each direction, the plan configuration enables equal and efficient work spaces in each perimeter. Sabanc Towers, Metrocity 1, Beybi Giz Plaza and Garanti Bank Headquarters are the examples of hybrid and unsymmetrical plans, whereas the Tat Towers and Tekst

36、ilkent Plaza 1 and 2 are composed of hexagonal form and similar core configuration.There is a conspicuous intend that the contemporary office buildings must be designed with minimum or no interior columns to enable maximum flexibility, consequently a column-free floor slab from the exterior to the c

37、ore is the optimum solution for the office development. However, as shown in Figure 1a, the analyzed buildings at abroad, except for the Sears Tower and the Central Plaza, are column free in the leasing depth. Three of the sample buildings from Turkey, Tekstilkent Plazas, Beybi Giz Plaza and Garanti

38、 Bank Headquarters, have interior columns, as Sabanc Center 1 and 2, Süzer Plaza and Metrocity 1 have peripheral columns recessed from the exterior wall. The least sufficient workplace can be observed in the typical floor plans of Garanti Bank Headquarters with multiple columns dispersed throug

39、hout the floor slab (Figure 1b). Although this building has a workplace organized into one space, the interior columns prevent the flexibility and efficiency of this usable space, presenting the disadvantage of a non-column-free floor slab as stated above.Core IntegrityThe core of the building compr

40、ises all of the vertical circulation elements, such as elevators, fire-stairs, mechanical shafts, toilets, and elevator lobbies. In early office buildings, these elements tended to be dispersed on the floor rather than concentrated, while todays contemporary buildings include all these elements in a

41、 specific zone, which is mainly the core. Many of the key structural elements, such as the shear walls that provide lateral stability, are integrated into the core in order to simplify the architectural design.Layout of the core is critical to the development efficiency and operational effectiveness

42、 of a high-rise office building, while also playing a significant role in the way the structure copes with lateral loads (Watts et al, 2007). Building cores can be arranged in several ways. Central cores integrating with the outer structure resist lateral loads more effectively and open up the perim

43、eter for light and view, enabling efficient workplaces. Buildings with side cores have the advantage of homogeneous workplaces, which is usually organized into one space. This building type is very attractive to users without cellular offices and has until recently been the standard in Japan and Kor

44、ea (Kohn and Katz, 2002). Multiple cores are common in lowrise buildings, which have very large or narrow floor slabs. The design of the core significantly affects the overall space efficiency of the buildings, vertical circulation, and distribution of mechanical and electrical shafts. In order to a

45、chieve the maximum space efficiency of a high-rise office building, the core must be reduced to an acceptable ratio of the gross floor area, while coping with the fire regulations and achieving an effective vertical transportation with the elevators.In many high-rise office buildings structural elem

46、ents within and around the core interact with the perimeter frame. These structural elements can be constructed with either steel or reinforced concrete, or both. In the case of a reinforced concrete core, its structural weight can be very heavy, thus inducing an additional cost for the foundation.

47、In United States, steel，is commonly used as the structural material and lightweight fire-rated drywall is used to form the walls in order to reduce its thickness and save the foundation cost and construction time (Ho, 2007). However, in Asian countries, the use of the structural steel with drywall f

48、orming is less common because their costs are higher than the conventional reinforced concrete construction. High-strength concrete is generally used to reduce the thickness of reinforced concrete core wall enabling more efficient spaces.Structural SystemFor contemporary high-rise office buildings,

49、it is important to adopt a structural system to cope with an open-plan, in which all office workers perform in a common space. Several structural solutions have been developed and are combined to meet the architectural requirements, such as column-free spaces and maximum leasing depth allowed by the

50、 site regulations. This classification is based on the distribution of the components of the primary lateral load resisting system over the building. A system is categorized as an interior structure, when the major part of the lateral load resisting system is located within the interior of the build

51、ing. Likewise, if the major part of the lateral load resisting system is located at the building perimeter, this system is categorized as an exterior structure. The authors also state that, any interior structure is likely to have some minor components of the lateral load resisting system at the bui

52、lding perimeter, and any exterior structure may have some minor components within the interior of the building. The two basic types of interior structures are the moment-resisting frames and shear trusses/walls. These systems are usually arranged as planar assemblies in two principal orthogonal dire

53、ctions and may be employed together as a combined system in which they interact. Another important system in this category is the core-supported outrigger structure, which is very widely used for super high-rise buildings (Ali and Moon, 2007). Unlike the interior structures, such as moment-resisting

54、 frames or shear walls are concentrated in a zone like the core, it is inevitable to achieve the maximum space efficiency.Other types of exterior structures include space trusses, super frames and exoskeletons (Ali and Moon, 2007). These systems are effective in resisting to both lateral and gravity

55、 loads, thus enabling the maximum space efficiency for office workers, as in the case of Bank of China.As stated in Table 6a, the Taipei 101 Tower, Shanghai World Financial Center, Jin Mao Tower and 2 International Finance Center are supported with composite mega-frames comprising columns of giganti

56、c size, and shear cores located in the center. The 110-storey Sears Tower is supported by a steel bundled tube structure comprising nine modular tubes. Both the CITIC Plaza and Central Plaza utilize high-strength reinforced concrete peripheral tubes interconnected with the shear core by floor beams

57、and slabs, thus representing a tube-in-tube structure. Petronas Tower 1 and 2, and Shun Hing Square are supported with peripheral rigid frames, linked to the central core of reinforced concrete shear walls by steel outriggers. Bank of China represents a specific structure of cross-braced space steel

58、 truss, which resists both lateral and gravity loads. The structural systems of five towers are composite, whereas the four towers utilize high-strength concrete, and one tower utilizes structural steel. Steel outrigger trusses are designed in all of the examples to combine the exterior structure wi

59、th the cores, except for the Central Plaza, Sears Tower and CITIC Plaza, and each building utilizes composite floor systems comprising beams and girders, except for the Central Plaza with reinforced concrete floor system. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONSAs properly-planned high-rise office buildings are d

60、iscussed, space efficiency, which is one of the efficiencies like structural, constructional, energy and operational, emerges as a major concern to be focused on. However, when the aim is to increase the rental income, space efficiency becomes significant in comparison with other efficiencies. In th

61、is context, this research presents important parameters for the design of high-rise office buildings and their relationship with space efficiency. Efforts havebeen made to present visual analysis, which explains the significance of space efficiency and the relationships of parameters that impact thi

62、s issue.The following are the major conclusions of the research: Structural system and core configuration are the most important factors affecting the space efficiency of high-rise office buildings, as they are closely related with the shape of the floor slab, leasing depth, floor height and vertica

63、l transportation. Cores in high-rise office buildings are much more complex than in conventional buildings, and their design is fundamental to the development and the operational effectiveness of a tower. Key elements of the core are the structural elements and elevators while the lifting design is

64、the major determinant of the core size and the space efficiency, and it determines the occupant travel and maximum waiting times. By the input of a specialist, dividing a building into a number of zones, each served by an appropriate sized group of lifts to decrease the core size, will increase the

65、space efficiency. The use of sophisticated controls for elevators is also an effective way of minimizing the number of elevators and waiting periods. Depending on requirements of the clients or the tenants, areas of the core elements can vary significantly, affecting the space efficiency. However, even though floor slab areas and heights of Turkish examples are almost half the examples abroad,