英文科技论文写作-语法和修辞

from: The ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors,1st edition(1986), 2nd edition(1997)英 语 科 技 论 文语 法 和 修 辞 （ 表 达 ） 概 要 一 点 说 明不 同 来 源 的 资 料 ， 说 法 不 完 全 相 同 气 象 科 技 英 文 编 辑 曾 晓 梅 ： “ 信 中 谈到 的 问 题 我 也 注 意 到 了 。 不 同 的 书 、 不同 出 版 单 位 有 自 己 的 说 法 和 做 法 ， 不 同国 家 的 英 文 ， 差 异 也 很 大 。 我 在 中 国 科 技 期 刊 研 究 上 文 章 根 据 的是 几 本 美 国 大 学 英 语 课 常 用 教 学 参 考 书（ 已 列 作 该 文 的 参 考 文 献 ） ， 我 习 惯 遵守 这 几 本 书 的 规 定 。 实 际 上 ， 一 些 权 威的 书 和 期 刊 上 前 后 都 不 一 致 。 现 在 ， 我在 改 稿 时 的 做 法 是 ， 在 两 者 均 有 根 据（ 或 范 例 ） 时 ， 一 般 来 说 不 改 ， 除 非 文中 内 容 是 指 个 体 还 是 整 体 非 常 明 显 。 *” * 指 主 谓 一 致 。 第 1部 分 几 个 语 法 问 题科 技 英 语 写 作 语 法 错 误 举 例 第 2部 分 修 辞 与 表 达英 语 写 作 表 达 的 几 个 问 题 平 山 健 三 英 语 化 学 论 文 写 作 方 法市 原 英 语 论 文 的 写 作 方 法孙 娴 柔 实 用 英 语 科 技 论 文 写 作周 春 晖 科 技 英 语 写 作冯 志 杰 汉 英 科 技 翻 译 指 要任 胜 利 英 语 科 技 论 文 撰 写 与 投 稿 英 文 现 刊 以 及 英 文 学 术 专 著 第 1部 分 几 个 语 法 问 题 科 技 英 语 写 作 语 法 错 误 举 例1 Subject-Verb Agreements2 Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses3 Dangling Modifiers（ 垂 悬 修 饰 语 ）4 Awkward Omissions of Verbs and Auxiliary Verbs 1 Subject-Verb Agreements （ 1） 在 主 语 中 含 并 列 连 词 “ and”时 ， 应正 确 区 分 是 单 个 主 语 还 是 并 列 主 语 。 若属 前 者 ， 谓 语 动 词 为 单 数 形 式 ， 若 属 后者 ， 谓 语 动 词 则 为 复 数 形 式 。 例 1 Application of this technique to studies on phytoplankton biomass and its environments are described. 说 明 The subject is “application”, which is singular. Application of this technique to is described. 例 2 Description of the experimental conditions and the results of the present investigation is made in detail in this paper.此 句 中 的 主 语 为 description, the experimental conditions and the results是 并 列 的 ， 与 of 构成 介 词 短 语 作 定 语 ， 故 谓 语 动 词 用 “ is made”。 例 3 The experimental condition and the result of the present investigation are described in detail in this paper.此 句 中 的 主 语 为 the experimental condition and the result, 为 并 列 主 语 ， 故 谓 语 用 are described. Sometimes, two singular subjects joined by “and” cause this error.例 4 Growth and isolation of M13 virus was described Growth and isolation of M13 virus were described. Exception: A subject that is plural in form but singular in effect takes a singular verb.例 5 The name and address of each contributor is given on the title page.例 6 Research and development is attracting a growing number of young scientists. R in that case they are often preceded by the word “the”. Collective nouns take a plural verb when individuals of the group are meant; in that case, they are often preceded by the word “a”. contents majority range couple number series dozen pair variety group 例 13 The series is arranged in order of decreasing size. 说 明 Refers to the series as a unit.例 14 A series of compounds were tested. 说 明 Refers to each compound. 例 15 The number of metal amides synthesized was the largest to date. (Refers to the number as a unit.) A number of metal amides were synthesized. (Refers to each amide.) 例 16 The series of compounds was prepared to test the hypothesis. (Refers to the series as a unit.) A series of compounds were tested. (Refers to each compound.) 例 17 A series of low molecular weight phenolphthalein epoxy resins ( Mn 500-700) has been prepared from phenolphthalein and epichlorohydrin using K2CO3(Na2CO3)/H2O as catalysts instead of NaOH/H2O. A series of low molecular weight phenolphthalein epoxy resins ( Mn 500-700) heve been prepared from phenolphthalein and epichlorohydrin using K 2CO3(Na2CO3)/H2O as catalysts instead of NaOH/H2O. an average of + 数 词 （ 意 思 为 平 均 数 量 有 之多 ） 作 主 语 ， 谓 语 动 词 用 复 数 形 式 An average of 100 kinds of reagents were in regular supply from the company each year. the average of + 数 词 意 思 为 平 均 数 （ 值 ） 作 主 语 ， 谓 语 动 词 用 单 数 形 式 。The average of a series of values is obtained simply by adding all the individual values and dividing the sum by the number of values.（ = The average of a series of values is obtained simply by adding all the individual values and dividing the sum by the measurement times.） （ 4） “ Data” can be a singular or plural noun. 例 18 Experimental data that we obtained are compared with previously reported results. 说 明 Refers to the data as individual results. 例 19 After the data are distributed, we can meet to discuss them. After the data is distributed, we can meet to discuss it. 说 明 Refers to the whole collection of data as one unit. （ 5） Units of measurement are treated as collective nouns and therefore take a singular verb. 例 20 The mixture was stirred, and 5 mL of diluent were added. The mixture was stirred, and 5 mL of diluent was added. 例 21 Five grams of NaCL were added to the solution. Five grams of NaCL was added to the solution. 例 22 Three weeks are needed to complete the experiment. Three weeks is needed to complete the experiment. 例 23 None of the samples was soluble. None of the samples were soluble. 说 明 Refers to individuals.例 24 This group of workers are well aware of their responsibilities. This group of workers is well aware of its responsibilities. 说 明 Refers to the group as a unit. （ 6） 某 些 特 殊 变 化 的 复 数 名 词 切 不 可 误 认 为 是单 数 名 词 ， 这 样 的 词 （ 如 analyses, bacteria, criteria, formulae, phenomena, spectra， data等 ）作 主 语 时 ， 谓 语 动 词 用 复 数 形 式 。例 25 Extensive data on the thermodynamical properties of the elements are available.例 26 The IR absorption spectra provide significant information regarding functional groups. （ 7） Nouns ending in ics and denoting a scientific discipline are usually singular. dynamics mechanics kinetics physics mathematics thermodynamics Mechanics involves the application of Newtons three laws of motion. The kinetics of electron transfer to and from photogenerated radicals was examined by laser flash photolysis. The thermodynamics is governed by the positions of the valence and conduction bands. （ 8） Compound subjects containing the words “each”, “every”, and “everybody” may take singular verbs. 例 27 Each flask and each holder was sterilized before use. Both components of the compound subject must contain the words in question. Otherwise, the verb must be plural. 例 28 Each student and all of the professors were invited. （ 9） Sometimes, one of these words is implicit; such cases take a singular verb. 例 29 Each name and address is entered into the database. （ 10） Indefinite pronouns themselves (or adjectives combined with the indefinite pronoun “one”) can be the subject of the sentence. Those that take a singular verb are “each”, “either”, “neither”, “no one”, “every one”, “anyone”, “someone”, “everyone”, “anybody”, “somebody”, and “ everybody”. 例 30 Each was evaluated for its effect on metabolism.例 31 Neither disrupts the cell membrane.例 32 Regarding compounds 1-10, every one reacts with the control agent.例 33 Someone measures the volume every day. Those that take a plural verb are “several”, “few”, “both”, “and “many”. 例 34 Several were evaluated for their effects on metabolism. 例 35 Few disrupt the cell membrane. 例 36 Regarding compounds 1 and 2, both react with the control agent. 例 37 Many were chosen to be part of the study. Those that take either a singular or plural verb, depending on context, are “some”, “any”, “none”, “all”, and “most”. The number of the object of the preposition determines the number of the indefinite pronoun related to it. 例 38 Some of the money was stolen. 例 39 Some of the books were lost. 例 40 Not all the disks are here; some were lost. （ 11） When a fraction is the subject of the sentence, the number of the attendant object of the preposition determines the number of the subject. 例 41 One third of the precipitate was dissolved. 例 42 One fourth of the electrons are excited. 例 43 The remainder of the compounds are yet to be described. （ 12） Most of （ plenty of , a lot of） + 复 数 名 词 作 主 语 时 ， 谓 语 动 词 用 复 数 形 式 ； Most of （ plenty of , a lot of） + 不 可 数 名 词 作 主 语 时 , 谓 语 动 词 用 单 数 形 式 Most of the better-known organic solvents are all suitable for these tests. There is plenty of distilled water in the bottle.(其 中的 water是 不 可 数 名 词 。 ) There are plenty of test tubes on test table. There is plenty of food. There are plenty of apples. Is there a lot of support for the idea? There are a lot of tourists here. （ 13） When a subject and its predicative disagree in number, the verb takes the number of the subject. 例 44 The preparation and structure determination of these three compounds are the topic of paper. 例 45 The topic of this paper is the preparation and structure determination of these three compounds. 2 Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses当 复 合 句 的 某 一 从 句 是 限 制 性 从 句 ， 则 该从 句 对 句 子 的 含 义 是 必 须 的 ， 如 无 该 从句 句 子 便 失 去 意 义 。 最 好 以 “ that”（ 而非 “ which”） 引 出 限 制 性 从 句 。When a clause in a compound sentence is restrictive, the clause is necessary to the sense of the sentence, the sentence would become pointless without the clause. Restrictive clauses are best introduced by “that”, not “which”. 例 46 It was necessary to fined a blocking group which would react with the amino group but not with the hydroxyl. It was necessary to fined a blocking group that would react with the amino group but not with the hydroxyl. A phrase or clause is nonrestrictive if it adds information but is not essential ; that is, the sentence does not lose its meaning if the phrase or clause is deleted.Nonrestrictive phrase and clause are set off by commas.如 短 语 或 从 句 只 是 给 句 子 增 添 信 息 ， 但 并 非 根 本性 的 ， 则 为 非 限 制 性 短 语 或 从 句 ， 即 如 删 去 这类 短 语 或 从 句 ， 句 子 并 不 失 去 其 意 义 。 非 限 制性 短 语 或 从 句 前 后 用 逗 号 分 隔 。 例 47 The current-voltage curves, which are shown in Figure 6, clearly demonstrate the reversibility of all four processes. 例 48 Melvin Calvin, who won the Nobel Prize in 1961, elucidated the biochemical pathways in photosynthesis. 例 49 Here, the Total signal, which is the analog of standard DSC, makes it very hard to find the polymer Tg. 3 Dangling Modifiers （ 垂 悬 修 饰 语 ） 也 称 垂 悬 短 语 (Dangling phrases) One form of a dangling modifier is a verbal phrase that not refer clearly and logically to another word or phrase in the sentence. The understood subject is usually the same as in the main clause. Walking across the field, we saw a plane fly past. (= As we were walking , we saw ) 与 句 子 主 语 没 有 联 系 的 短 语 修 饰 语 ， 即动 词 短 语 的 逻 辑 主 语 （ 隐 含 主 语 ） 与 主句 主 语 不 一 致 。 短 语 的 隐 含 主 语 和 主 句 中 的 主 语 应 保 持一 致 。 悬 垂 修 饰 语 或 称 悬 垂 短 语 （ Dangling phrases）是 指 对 句 子 中 的 另 一 词 或 短 语 关 系 不 清 晰并 不 合 逻 辑 非 谓 语 动 词 短 语 。 人 们 所 理 解的 这 类 短 语 的 逻 辑 主 语 通 常 与 主 句 的 主 语是 一 致 的 。 下 面 列 举 悬 垂 修 饰 语 的 几 种 情 形 ： （ 1） If a modifier precedes the subject of a sentence, it must modify that subject and be separated from it by a comma. Otherwise, it is a dangling modifier. 如 果 一 个 修 饰 语 是 在 句 子 的 主 语 之 前 ， 它 必 须修 饰 那 个 主 语 ， 并 以 逗 号 分 隔 。 否 则 就 是 悬 垂修 饰 语 例 50 Splitting the atom, many new elements were discovered by Seaborg. 此 句 中 的 splitting the atom 为 现 在 分 词 短 语 ，其 逻 辑 主 语 应 与 句 子 主 语 一 致 ， 故 需 改 成 Splitting the atom, Seaborg discovered many new elements. 或 将 splitting the atom考 虑 为 动 名 词 短 语 ,在 其 前 加 on 或 upon 变 成 介 词 短 语 ： Upon Splitting the atom, many new elements were discovered by Seaborg. Upon Splitting the atom, Seaborg discovered many new elements. 例 51 When confronted with these limitations, the experiments were discontinued. When confronted with these limitations, we discontinued the experiments. In light of these limitations, the experiments were discontinued. 例 52 Understanding the effect of substituents on the parent molecules, the ortho hydrogens could be assigned to the high-frequency peak. Understanding the effect of substituents on the parent molecules, we could assign the ortho hydrogens to the high-frequency peak. 例 53 Using the procedure described previously, the partition function can be evaluated. the partition function can be evaluated by using the procedure described previously. Or, Using the procedure described previously, we can evaluate the partition function. 这 种 悬 垂 结 构 （ 例 50、 51、 53） 可 修 改 为介 词 短 语 upon, in light of , by using 但 由 于 主 句 的 主 语 并 非 介 词 短 语 中 的 行 为执 行 者 ， 有 时 仍 视 为 悬 垂 结 构 (2) Phrases starting with “based on” must modify a noun or pronoun that usually immediately precedes or follows the phrase. Use phrases starting with “on the basis of” to modify a verb. 短 语 based on 在 句 中 修 饰 一 个 名 词 或 代 名 词 ，通 常 该 短 语 紧 跟 被 修 饰 的 名 词 或 代 名 词 之 后 。应 以 “ On the basis of ” 开 头 的 短 语 去 修 饰 一 个动 词 。 即 一 个 句 子 可 以 On the basis of 开 头 ，而 不 是 以 Based on开 头 。 例 54 Based on resonance enhancement and frequency shifts, changes in the inter ring separation were calculated. On the basis of resonance enhancement and frequency shifts, changes in the inter ring separation were calculated. 例 55 Based on extensive study, this genetic deficiency was attributed to the loss of one isozyme. (“Based on extensive study” modifies the noun “deficiency”, but this not the meaning.) On the basis of extensive study, this genetic deficiency was attributed to the loss of one isozyme. (“On the basis of extensive study” modifies the verb “was attributed”.) 例 56 Style guidelines based on authoritative sources are included in this book.例 57 Figure 8 shows the analysis of a drug delivery system based on amorphous, biodegradable polymer microspheres. （ 3） “ Due to” means “attributable to”; use it only to modify a noun or pronoun directly preceding it in the sentence or following a form of the verb “to be”. “Due to” 意 思 是 “ attributable to” （ 归 因 于 ） ; 用 它 只 是 去 修 饰 一 个 名 词 或 代 名 词 ， 在 句 中 直接 将 其 前 置 ； 或 在 动 词 “ to be” 的 某 种 形 式 之后 。 例 58 Delays resulted due to equipment failure. Delays due to equipment failure were unavoidable. The delays were due to equipment failure. Dangling phrases 包 括 悬 垂 分 词 短 语 、 悬 垂 不 定 式 短 语 和 悬 垂 介 词 短 语 3种a. 悬 垂 分 词 短 语 (Dangling participle phrases) Having reviewed the technical report, several mistakes were found in it. Having reviewed the technical report, we found several mistakes in it. Based on the biological and geographical characters, lakes in China can be divided into five major groups. On the basis of the biological and geographical characters, lakes in China can be divided into five major groups. Lakes in China can be divided into five major groups according to their biological and geographical characters. b. 悬 垂 不 定 式 短 语 (Dangling infinitive phrases) In order to realize sustainable development of society, it needs to consider the protected area construction as an important component of regional developmental planning and In order to realize sustainable development of society, we should consider the construction of protected area as an important component of regional developmental planning and c. 悬 垂 介 词 短 语 (Dangling preposition phrases) After removing the outmost leaves, the material was rubbed with 70% ethanol for surface sterilization. The materials were cleansed with 70% ethanol for surface sterilization, after their outmost leaves were removed. 主 句 和 介 词 短 语 均 为 被 动 态 ， their 是 指 代 materials 下 面 几 种 情 形 不 是 dangling modifiers: (4) Absolute constructions are words, phrases, or clauses that are grammatically unconnected with the rest of the sentence in which they appear. They are sometimes called “sentence modifiers” because they qualify the rest of the sentence. They may occur anywhere in the sentence, and they are always set off by commas. They are not dangling modifiers. 在 句 中 出 现 的 与 句 子 的 其 余 部 分 在 语 法 上 无 联 系的 词 、 短 语 和 从 句 。 由 于 它 们 是 修 饰 句 子 的 其余 部 分 ， 有 时 将 其 称 作 句 子 修 饰 语 “ sentence modifiers” 。 这 种 独 立 结 构 可 出 现 在 句 子 的 任意 处 ， 并 以 逗 号 分 隔 ， 它 们 不 是 垂 悬 修 饰 语 。 例 59 Contrary to the excited state situation, metalbonding interactions in the ground states are weak. 例 60 The constructions were premature, considering the lack of available data. 例 61 judging from the spectral changes, exhaustive photolysis of compound 4 had occurred. 例 62 The conformations about the ReRe bond, in addition, are different for all three complexes. Absolute constructions often begin with one of the following words: 独 立 结 构 常 以 下 列 各 词 之 一 开 头 ： considering provided given providing judging regarding concerning failing （ 5） In mathematical papers, absolute phrases beginning with the words “assuming” and “taking” are often used as sentence modifiers. 例 63 Assuming that distance d is induced by the norm, M is a symmetrical and positively defined matrix. 例 64 Taking this value as an upper limit, the two shortest distances are sometimes too long for incipient hydrogen bonds. （ 6） A subordinate or elliptical clause may be used as a sentence modifier. 例 65 The compound is stable in air, as we concluded from the experiment evidence. 例 66 The Mo 5s orbitals, as expected, interact strongly with the ligands. （ 7） An introductory infinitive or infinitive phrase may be a sentence modifier. 例 67 To prepare compound 2, the method of Garner was followed. 4 Awkward Omissions of Verbs and Auxiliary VerbsBe sure that each subject in a compound sentence has the proper verbs and auxiliary verbs.例 68 The eluant was added to the column, and the samples collected in 10-mL increments. The eluant was added to the column, and the samples were collected in 10-mL increments. 小 结1 主 谓 一 致 以 and 连 接 的 两 个 单 数 主 语 通 常 ， 谓 语 动 词 用 复 数 有 些 主 语 形 式 上 是 复 数 ， 实 际 上 是 单 数 这 时 谓 语 动 词 用 单 数 并 列 主 语 前 后 均 含 有 “ each”， “ every”， “ everybody” 之 类 的 词 ， 用 单 数 谓 语 动词 两 个 主 语 以 “ or”连 接 ， 谓 语 与 最 靠 近 的 主语 一 致 集 合 名 词 The series (to be) 视 为 整 体 ， 谓 语 用 单 数 A series of 视 为 分 别 的 ， 谓 语 用 复 数 度 量 单 位 ， 单 数 由 分 数 作 主 语 ， 由 随 之 的 介 词 宾 语 的 数 决 定 主 语 的 数 2 限 制 性 和 非 限 制 性 从 句 that ,which , 3 悬 垂 修 饰 语 与 句 子 主 语 没 有 联 系 的 短 语 修 饰 语 。 由 On the basis of 开 头 , 不 是 Based on due to 后 跟 名 词 或 代 名 词 ， 或 (to be) due to Sentence modifiers 独 立 结 构 数 学 论 文 ， 以 assuming, taking 开 头 的 句 子 从 句 或 省 略 句 不 定 式 短 语4 动 词 与 助 动 词 的 不 合 理 省 略 如 助 动 词 “ to be”的 省 略 Language The language must aid the understanding of your work. Poor use of language will discourage editors from accepting your work. Spend time on perfecting the language. Communicating the science is as important as the science itself. Ask a skilled writer or someone fluent in English to check your manuscript before submission. LanguageSpare the reader the trouble of guessing what you mean! Complaint from an Editor: “I refuse to spend time trying to understand what the author is trying to say. They cannot expect us to correct a poorly written manuscript. If there are more than 6 grammatical errors in the abstract, then I do not waste my time reading the rest. ” LanguageClarity, objectivity, accuracy, brevity Use scientific English. Practice writing English whenever you can.Keep records in English during research. Pay attention to the following:Consistency of the sentencesLogic of expressionGrammar, spelling and punctuation should be correct Language long sentences Direct and short sentences are preferred!Avoid long sentences. The average length of sentences in scientific writing is about 12 to 17 words. The Chinese language can express more complicated meaning with fewer words than English. Change your style when writing in English. One piece of information per sentence is sufficient, avoid multiple pieces in one sentence. 第 2部 分 修 辞 与 表 达 科 技 英 语 写 作 表 达 的 几 个 问 题 1 简 明 2 富 于 变 幻 3 辨 析 近 义 词 4 语 法 修 辞 及 其 他 (1) 时 态 、 语 态 与 人 称 (2) 非 谓 语 动 词 ： 分 词 短 语 或 不 定 式 短 语 (3) 使 用 肯 定 句 ， 不 用 “ 双 重 否 定 句 ” （ 4) 由 which, that, where 引 出 的 从 句 (5) 不 要 在 一 个 名 词 前 用 一 串 词 进 行 修 饰(6) 词 序(7) 利 用 时 态 表 示 事 件 发 生 的 先 后 关 系 (8) 介 词 1) 与 描 写 实 验 过 程 有 关 的 介 词 2) 由 相 同 介 词 引 起 的 相 互 平 行 的 对 等 结 构(9) “only”的 具 体 含 义 视 其 在 句 中 的 位 置 而 定(10) 通 常 不 应 将 诸 如 “ different from”, “similar to”, “identical to”, “identical with” 等 惯 用 语 拆 开 (11) 由 “ relative to”,“as compared to”， “ as compared with”,以 及 单 词 “ versus”引 出的 相 比 较 的 第 二 成 分 ， 与 第 一 成 分 在 语 法 结 构 上 必 须 是 平 行 的 。(12) 科 学 论 文 ， 不 用 wasnt 之 类 的 缩 写 形 式(13) 根 据 所 要 表 达 的 意 思 ， 用 “ and”或 “ or” 代 替 “ and/or(14) 正 斜 体 缩 写(15) 语 用 含 糊(16) 英 译 应 遵 守 的 原 则 和 修 辞 的 一 些 问 题 1 简 明 科 学 论 文 不 同 于 文 学 作 品 ， 要 求 必 须 简 明 、清 晰 、 准 确 例 As can be seen from Fig.1, growth is rapid. As shown in Fig.1 Growth is rapid (Fig.1). Fig.1 shows that growth is rapid. Fig.1 shows The molar enthalpy of decomposition was determined to be 62.38 kJ/mol by means of the third peak area in DSC curve. The molar enthalpy of d