语言学笔记-语言

1. Linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people atcutally use, it is said to be Descriptive（描述性）-synchronic study（共 时研究）If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behaviour in using language, it is said to be Perscriptive（规定性）- diachronic study （动态研究）3. Modern linguistic regards the spoken language as the nature or the primary medium of human language.4. Langue（语言）refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; parole（话语） refers to the realization of langue in actual use.5. Competence: the ideal（normal） user's knowledge of the rules of his language; Performance: the actual realization of the knowledge in linguistic communications.6. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols（语言符号系统）used for human communication.7. Displacement（移位性）:It means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.（things which are present of not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or far-away places.）8. Voicing（浊音）:Vibration of the vocal cords（ 声带）results in a quality of speech sound called "voicing". It's the feature of all vowels and some consonants.Voiceless（清音）：When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless.9. Speech organs: the tongue, the uvula（小舌）,the soft palate/velum, the hard palate, the teeth ridge/alveolus（齿龈），the teeth and the lips. The tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation （发音）than any otherLarynxVocal cordsFig. L Organs of speech.Hard palateSoft palateUvulaPharynxOesophagusB Vlri 吧 cal arEpielOttlS drink, it will F 口Iiu I i ilo«ii laprrvj'nl the r*wxl or drink fraawtianjc d ito询上in神pip此AlveohrridgeTongueBack RootracheaTeethBladeGlot l.i n i ya Ltic openiii| ftt Ihirs imsi tion btlwccn Line Im v<H-al eordB when they are open.10. English consonants classification: in therms of manner of articulation（发音方式）;in terms of place of articulation（发音部位）; voicing （浊音）and voiceless（浊音）11. Vowels sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.（舌头位置，开口度，唇形，音长度）12. Phone（音素）: a phonetic unit or segment. A phone doesn't necessarily distinguish meaning; Phoneme（音位）: a phonological unit that is of distinctive value.13. Minimal pairs（最小对）: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.14. Suprasegmental features（音位特征）: stress, tone, intonation（重音, 声调，语调）15. A phonological feature of the English compounds in that the stress of the word always falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress.（重音在另一个音节）16. Open class words: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Closed class words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.17. Morphology（形态学） refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.18. Bound morphemes are never words but always parts of words, like -ish, -able. Free morphemes can constitute words by themselves like: girl, rely. We seldom use bound morphemes alone, we combine all morphemes into longer units and sentences.19. Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar funtions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Major lexical categories are noun, verb, adjective and preposition.20. Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement.21. A certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate positions that specifiers, heads, complements occupy in phrase structure.Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule（短语结构规则）22. Not all verbs can take a CP complement. Words that can take CP are not verbs alone; As, Ns and Ps call all take CP.23. Transformation: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.24. Wh question: question beginning with a wh-word.25. Contextualism（语境/情境因素） a word in a new context is a new word.26. Behaviorism（行为主义）27. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the feature of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.28. Synonymy（同义） refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.29. Polysemy（词多义） refers to the same one word may have more than one meaning. This word is called a polysemic.30. Homonymy（同音异义）refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.31. Antonymy（反义词）words have oppositeness of meaning.32. Componential analysis（词义分析成分） is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.33 The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. Predication analysis.（句意分析）34. Pragmatics（语用学）it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.35. If the context of language use was left unconsidered it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is where in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.36. The notion of context is essential to the pragmatics study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.37. It all depends on how we look at it a nd how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit(语法单位) and consider it as a self-contained unit(独立单元) in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence.38. A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously(同时地) when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act.(言内行为，言外行为，言后行为)39. According to Searle, speech acts fall into five general categories:1) Representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true2) Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something3) Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action4) Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state5) Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something40. Cooperative principle/CP:推断题1) The maxim of quantity/信息量过大，不可2) The maxim of quality/无证据的认为是错的，不说3) The maxim of relation/不相关的，不说4） The maxim of manner/含糊不清的，不说，要简洁有条理41. Modern English/Old English: changes in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, semantic components（音,形，句法，词，语义成分）.42. 判断用哪种方法造新词：coinage（创新法），clipped words（剪切法）, blending（混拼法）,acronyms（首字母缩略）,back-formation（逆构法）, functional shift（功能转变法）,borrowing（借用法）43. 判断词义扩大缩小:widening（词义扩大）,narrowing（词义缩小）44. Speech community is defined as group of people who from a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.45. A social group may distinguish itself form the rest of the communityby: the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age, or the ethnic affiliation of its members.46. Sociolinguistic（社会语言学）studies three types of speech varieties: regional dialects（地域方言）,sociolects（社会方言）,registers（语域）47. A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. It is associated with separation caused by physical conditions.48. Social dialect has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions. Social-class dialect/sociolect, refers to the linguistic varieties characteristic of a particular social class.49. Register（语域或使用域"functional speech variety（功能变体"situational dialect（情境方言）50. Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to they type of situation.51. Three social variables（社会变量）that determine the register: field of discourse（话语范围），tenor of discourse（基调），model of discourse（方52. Linguistic relativity（语言相对性）: different language offer people different ways of expressing the world around. This independence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf hypothesis（SWH）.认为语言结构决定人类思维方式及行动方法的假说.53. Hypothesis/SWH is interpreted in two ways: Strong version believes that the language patterns determine people's thinking and behaviour, the weak one holds that the former influence the latter.54. Any linguistic sign（语言符号）may be simultaneously of a denotative（本体义）,connotative（含蓄义）,or iconic（形象义）kind of meanings.55. In addition to the fact that different language may have different divisions of colour, different languages entail different color related associations.56. The increasing cultural diffusion（文化传播） has been recognized a tendency of cultural imperialism（文化帝国主义）owing to linguistic imperialism（语言帝国主义）.57. Language acquisition（言语习得）refers to the child's acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. How the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community .58. Traditional behaviorists（行为主义者）view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.59. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD（language acquisition device）, which enables them to discover his language's structure by matching the innate（先天的）knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language. Chomsky prefers this innate endowment as Universal Grammar/UG（普遍语法）60. Only when conversations provide the right level of language that children are capable of processing can they facilitate children's language acquisition, otherwise it s insu ficient.61. All child language acquisition theories talk about the roles of two factors to different degrees: the linguistic environment children are exposed to, the age they start to learn the language.62. Critical Period Hypothesis（关键期假设）: the LAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.63. Stages in child language development: phonological development, vocabulary development, grammatical development64. In learning second language distinguish was made between positive transfer （facilitate target language） and negative transfer（interfere）65. Interlanguage（中介语）was established as learners' independent system of the second language which is neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language.66. Individual differences: Language aptitude（语言学能）：refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. Cognitive mechanism（认 知机制）.Motivation（学习动机）: learner's attitudes and affective state or learning drive impacts strongly. Age of acquisition（习得年龄）. Personality（性格）CPH存在于第二外语习得吗？