Hidden Driving Forces of Fujian Illegal Immigration to the UK and its Economic and Social Impacts

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1、Hidden Driving Forces of Fujian Illegal Immigration to the UK and its Economic and Social ImpactsAying Liu & Yinghong WuMiddlesex University Business SchoolAbstractInternational labour migration has been one of the complicated and increasingly important issues that bother most countries nowadays. Th

2、is paper takes the case of the large and recent influx of Fujian illegal immigrants to the UK to find out its causes and interactive economic effects. Based on a review of the literature in the field and an investigation of 50 illegal immigrants, the analytical results of this paper illustrates some

3、 complex reasons behind recent Chinas illegal immigration; they contains not only international and domestic factors such as the income gaps and employment situations, but also some cross-nations illegal forces such as smuggling of labour force between the home country and the destination country. T

4、his study found that illegal immigrants from Fujian are mainly young males with lower education; all of them have very strong social network in the UK; all of them paid a huge amount of money to the snakehead for illegal immigration fee, which directly lead a long-term stay for them; all of them kee

5、p close connection with their families, 90 percent of earning will be sent back every month. This paper concludes six elements of hidden driving forces behind Fujian illegal immigration, namely, economic development gap, immigration chain, international environment, huge profit for the international

6、 organised crime organization, globalisation and some significant events.Key Words: Illegal immigrates, labour movement, Survey data, Fujian, UK1Introduction1.1 The main issueThe process of globalisation creates new opportunities for world development and employment, and it also brings challenges an

7、d problems such as international labour mobility. There is enough evidence showing that, it is important for a national economy to be an active participator of international trade and investment, in order to grip the new opportunities of the globally integrated markets and resources. Thus, in order

8、to obtain maximum benefits, a group of countries agreed to eliminate tariffs and quotas to sign up free trade agreements (WTO, NAFTA and EFTA) or build up free trade areas (EU, FATT and ASEAN). However, within these agreements, European Union is a unique case that allows the free flow of labour. Des

9、pite the fact that labour migration is one of critical issues of the international economy over a long time period, many developed countries have been trying to be blind or avoid the discussion of this issue on the negotiation tables; for example, the US always refuses the free flow of labour within

10、 the North American Free Trade Agreement. Globalisation is a primary force that is shaping the character and impact of migration. Lower travel costs and information and communication technologies have made migration much more viable, the exchange of money and technology that is a result of migration

11、 much easier, and return or circular migration more prevalent (Doyle, 2004). Generally speaking, the global flows of international immigrants can be grouped into labour, family, and refugee types. They may migrate willingly or unwillingly, and may have permanent, temporary, or illegal status.Undoubt

12、edly, international immigration has different impacts on both home and host countries. For countries of original, international migration would be able to reduce unemployment, contribute to an increase in real wages, supply with significant remittance flows, and lift up living standards. According t

13、o the IOM (International Organisation for Migration) estimates, there are about $60 to $100 billion of remittance returning to their home countries. However, it can also bring about losses of highly skilled labours. For countries of destination, international migration tends to have a mixed impact o

14、n the economy, particularly on the employment and salaries of non-migrants, and on social transfers. The issue of international migration has thus become an important global concern for a growing number of countries of original, transiting, and destination. No matter how difficult it is, internation

15、al labour movement is a non-stop trend. Therefore, countries have to face up to this issue, and find some way to tickle it.1.2 The objectives of the researchCompared with the legal international migration, illegal immigration is a problem of growing scale and importance for many developed countries

16、and has become a topic of increasing interest worldwide in the last 10 years as the consequence of the globalisation and the regional integration. illegal immigrants is defined as workers cross the borders into foreign countries without the required authorization, or they initially enter legally but

17、 then abuse their residence permit or visa (Agiomirgianakis and Zervoyianni, 2001). A conservative estimates (Skeldon, 2000) reported that there was a stock around 11 million irregular migrants worldwide; there were more than 3.0 million illegal migrants within the EU and about 3.5 and 4.0 million i

18、n the USA. According to the Home office (200x) estimate, there were up to 570,000 illegal immigrants living in the UK. Being one of the most advanced countries, the UK has been adopting a free-trade policy and has a great attraction to international labour inflow. However, labour mobility, unlike ca

19、pital or other factors, has been a problematic issue in terms of international trade, domestic social welfare, and unemployment affaire. The typical examples of the seriousness of the problems may be two incidences occurred on Chinese immigration labour to UK labour market. On a hot summer day in mi

20、d-June of 2000, British customs officers found 58 bodies inside a Dutch tomato truck in Dover, all of them had suffocated. Time move to 5 February 2004, twenty-three young Chinese workers drowned in Morecambe Bay, England, after being trapped by the speed of the incoming tide as they picked cockles

21、(an edible mollusc) from the beach. There are two tragic events attracted worlds attentions to the illegal immigration from Fujian (a province locates in the southeast of China), because all of the deceased were migrants from Fujian except one.By examining and analysing the illegal immigration case

22、from Fujian, China to the UK, the objectives of this study are twofold: (1) to find out the nature of illegal Chinese immigration; (2) to reveal the influential factors and the driving forces behind the phenomenon, and (3) to find out the economic impacts on both sides. This paper is organised as th

23、e following2The Background of the ResearchThere is more than 10,000 kilometres distance from Fujian province of China to the UK. However, this distance can not stop the illegal immigration from the pace. This section is going to explore the background of both areas. 2.1 The situation of migration in

24、 the UKImmigration is now on an unprecedented scale. Since the fifth enlargement of European Union in May 2004, the rapid increases in the size of the free movement of labour from Eastern Europe (EU) reach the UK. The expansion of EU has been a catalyst for recent increases in flows of international

25、 migration to the UK. Figure 1 below shows that the UK has experienced increasing levels of both inward and outward international migration in recent years. Over the past decade the estimated migration into the country increased from 320,000 in 1997 to 591,000 in 2006.Figure 1: Total International M

26、igration to/from the UK, 1997-2006Source: International migration, Office for National StatisticsThe above figure shows a persistent increase in both immigration and emigration in the UK. An estimated 591,000 people arrived to live in the UK for at least a year in 2006. This was slightly more than t

27、he previous highest estimate of long-term immigration of 586,000 recorded in 2004. However, the net migration in 2006 was 53,000 lower than the record estimate of 244,000 in 2004. This decline in net migration was due to emigration increasing more than immigration.Even this number does not include i

28、llegal immigrants. About 50,000 illegal entrants are detected every year but nobody knows how many succeed in entering undetected (Migration Watch UK, 2007). 2.2 The Background of Fujian Province, ChinaSeveral factors contribute to the rapidly rising and highly publicizing undocumented Chinese immig

29、ration, which are linked to large-scale Chinas economic reform and structural changes in the new political economy (Zhou, 2005). With the introduction of economic reforms since 1978, especially the implementation of the household responsibility system in the countryside, huge numbers of rural labour

30、s have been freed from farming. More and more labours leave their land to find high-wage jobs in the cities. In the context of this environment, the labours from Fujian province also choose to find jobs in the cities, but they prefer to find jobs in the overseas developed countries, and the most are

31、 by illegal way. Fujian province, which located in the south-east coast region of China, had a population of 35.35 million in the year 2005. Emigration towards to rich countries is not new to the people in Fujian. In fact, historically Fujian was one of the major migrant-original provinces in China.

32、 Indeed, the coastal areas of Fujian on illegal immigration activities appeared as early as the 1940s. The major route at that time was so-called Jump Ship to Southeast Asian countries. As a result, a full 80 percent of all Chinese in the Philippines and 55 percent of the Chinese in Indonesia are of

33、 Fujian origin (Zhu, 1990). One of the classic questions in the migration literature is whether migrants move in order to escape poverty. This is clearly not the case in Fujian province as it is not the poorest province in China. Quite the contrary, it is one of the coastal provinces that experience

34、d the most rapid growth during the recent decades since the late 1970s. For example, the rural household per capita income of Fujian province was ranked the ninth out of all 31 regions in 2005 (China Statistical Yearbook, 2006). These data indicate that in contrast to other provinces in China, Fujia

35、n has enjoyed a particular advantage in the process of transition to a market-oriented economy. However, why people would like taking huge risks to go abroad rather than finding a job at home? Moreover, illegal migrants pay large sums to the traffickers. Chinese migrants pay up to 20,000 per capita

36、to migrate to the UK. Thus, it is getting important to find out the hidden driving forces behind illegal immigrants, and their further influences on the UKs and Chinas economy.3Literature ReviewEconomic theory considers international migration a universal socio-economic phenomenon with a long histor

37、y, a process that reduces supply-demand imbalances in the labour markets and income disparities among countries, and promotes economic growth (Fakiolas, 2004). Zimmermann (1995) regarded the behaviour of immigration as one of the most important issues in the contemporary global economy. It is estima

38、ted that over 140 million people now live in a country where they were not born (United Nations, 2002). There already exist a number of researches on the impact of international migration flows on economic, social, institutional and environmental ingredients for both home and host countries. As a re

39、sult, Borjas (1999) thought the questions of labour flows across labour market have been at the core of labour market economics research for many years. 3.1 The economic impact of illegal immigration on host countryThe literature on illegal immigration is much less widespread. The reason is that inf

40、ormation on illegal immigrants is much more difficult to obtain, and hence one does not know the extent of skill composition of illegal immigrants, the wages paid to them relative to those of legal immigrants, and the sectors in which they are employed (Sarris and Zografakis, 1999). Jahn and Straubh

41、aar (1995) in their survey point out that most empirical analyses are of the simulation type, precisely because of this lack of data. Theoretically, the economic impact of an influx of illegal immigrants should not be different from that of legal immigrants after accounting for the wage differences

42、due to illegality. Specific issues relevant to illegal immigrants include the impact of stronger regulation and enforcement (Ethier, 1986), and the expansion of sectors that tend to employ immigrants (typically those operating in the informal or underground economy) at the expense of the formal sect

43、ors (Loayza, 1994). The theoretical effects of illegal immigration on the host country depend on the skill composition and sectors of employment, items on which there is little empirical information. Chiswick (1988) has surveyed the various policies toward illegal immigration followed by the United

44、States over the years. Chiswick describes the “dilemma” of US immigration policy, whereby while low-skilled foreign immigrants can have benefits for the local economy, they might create social problems by staying long, bringing families and different social values, and exploiting domestic social ser

45、vices. Guest worker programs tend to create “second class citizens” with adverse social consequences, as the experiences of both the United States and Europe amply manifest. The impact of illegal immigration on wages and employment of nationals has received little attention. The empirical study of B

46、ean et al. (1987) in United States finds that that illegal Mexicans have only a small impact on the wages of other workers. Tapinos and de Rugy (1994) also point out that the reason for the slight effects may be that illegal immigrants do not compete much with nationals, as they take up jobs in infe

47、rior and hence complementary labour markets.3.2 The influencing factors of Chinas illegal immigrationIn the 1990s, thousands of Chinese illegal immigrants have made their way to developed countries in the West after several months of voyage, enduring tremendous hardship and financial risk (Wang, 200

48、1). There are macro- and micro-causal factors that influence this international illegal migration. The macro factors contain historical, economic, and social aspects, whereas the micro factor includes some situational aspects that happened in specifically period. Historical factorsHistorically, Chin

49、ese overseas migration can be traced back several centuries ago. At that time, most immigrants were from the Guangdong (Canton) Province and a small portion from Fujian Province. Many of the early immigrants sailed for Southeast Asian countries. During those days, immigrants passage was purchased by

50、 their employers who then used their labour to repay the debt. This kind of migration was not considered illegal in the sense that there were no specific regulations to prohibit such labour practices in China or other countries. This massive Chinese emigration has significantly changed the demograph

51、y of many Southeast Asian countries (Poston et al., 1994). For example, a full 80 percent of all Chinese in the Philippines and 55 percent of the Chinese in Indonesia are of Fujian origin (Zhu, 1990).Today the majority of the illegal immigrants come from Fujian Province and only a few from the Guang

52、dong Province. The figure 2 shows that about three quarters of emigrants are from Fuzhou area (which contains Changle, Fuqing, Liangjiang and Mawei counties, a hilly costal region opposite Taiwan) of Fujian province. Almost 99 percent of those illegal immigrants are from these counties. The people i

53、n the region are well known for their hard work and adventures in seeking better fortune (Wang, 2001).As a historical tradition in the region, a family feels very proud and is respected if one of the sons can send back from overseas a large sum of money to help build a new house and sponsor a villag

54、e banquet (Wang, 2001). Thus, for the past two centuries, an individual who immigrates to other countries carries with him a whole familys hope for a better future. Such a hope still exists in those areas in Fujian province. It is generally believed by the local people that those who go abroad do be

55、tter than do those who stay at home.Figure 2: Distribution of emigrants by county, Fujian, 2000Source: Chinese Population Census, 2000Economic factorsMany of the illegal immigrants are young farmers and fishermen from mountainous villages along the southern coast of the Fujian Province. In those are

56、as, cultivated land is so scarce that most families have only a fraction of an acre to farm. At the same time, the farmers also have to suffer from bad weather (typhoon comes very often in summer), inflation, arbitrary levies (the agricultural tax has just been cancelled in 2007), and corruption. An

57、 old farmer has said: “if we rely on the land to survive, that many people will starve to death.” Since 1991, the growth rate of Chinas economy is at an astounding 10 percent per year. The booming economy stimulated by the economic reform in the area provides many opportunities for those young educa

58、ted people who have job skills and consequent earning power (Wang, 2001). On the other hand, young farmers or fishermen who have less education or job skills or no money from abroad frequently find themselves at a disadvantage to compete. Even worse is Chinas domestic surplus labour inflow making Fu

59、jian labour less competitive. As result, many of those who feel disadvantaged in competition would like to choose an illegal means to realize their life. Social factorsAs the economic reform in China deepens, especially along the coastal regions, it unavoidably undermines the regulatory and integrat

60、ive functions of certain social institutions (police and village government). As these institutions become less functional, people may suddenly find themselves in a situation in which many new opportunities exist because of the loosening of social controls formerly exercised by these social institut

61、ions (Wang, 2001). 1) First, local governments do not now have the type of tight control over the population that they had formerly. No one has to report if a farmer or fisherman disappears from his village or a worker resigns from his factory job. 2) Second, border controls have been loosened to a

62、great extent due to the more liberal policies toward Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Individual trips both in and out have become easier, requiring less official permission. 3) Third, the economic boom promotes privatization. Private boats that used to be rare are now owned by many farmers or fisherme

63、n, presenting a greater chance of mobility at some off-coast islands that have been heavily used as transit points for smuggling. 4) Finally, the economic reform, unfortunately, has also resulted in growing corruption among local police and government officials. Passports and exit documents can be b

64、ought at a price. The new situation has also led to an emergence of Mafia-style criminal syndicates that have contacts in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Chinatowns in the United States (Booth, 1991).Situational factorsSome situational factors have also played a role in the new surge of illegal Chinese immig

65、ration. Situational factors mean that some social events act as catalysts, triggering the overall condition to change in the context of the micro factors (Wang, 2001).Some western countries have the asylum policy which allows any alien to apply for asylum if his or her life or freedom would be threatened on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion, such as the UK and US. According to the policy, Chinese citizens who arrive in these countries, no matter legal or illegal, can apply for political asylum by some reason