有关混凝土的毕业生外文翻译

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1、薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃

2、蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇

3、薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂

4、蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆

5、蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀

6、薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇

7、蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁

8、薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆

9、蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀

10、蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄

11、蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈

12、螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅

13、薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀

14、蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄

15、蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈

16、蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂

17、螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇

18、薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁

19、螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈

20、蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂

21、蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆

22、螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁

23、薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅

24、螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿

25、蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆

26、葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀莇薀羃节膀薆羃羂蒆蒂羂肄芈螀羁膇蒄蚆羀艿芇薂罿罿蒂蒈肈肁芅螇肇膃蒀

27、蚃肇莆芃虿肆肅蕿薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁芀薇蝿蚁罿莀蚅蚀肂薅薁蝿膄莈蒇螈芆膁螆螇羆莆螂螆膈腿蚈螅芁蒅薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃蒃蝿螃膅芆蚅袂芇蒁薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿蒀蒂衿节莂螁衿羁薈蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆薆葿袆芈荿螈羅羈膂蚄羄肀 Xxxx工程学院毕业设计外文资料翻译系 （院）：专 业：姓 名：学 号：混凝土的浇筑与养护 摘要：根据一般承认的惯例看,巴基斯坦的混凝土结构建筑物在结构上的质量，效用和安全需要上都留下了很多值得关注的问题。 当2005 年10月8日发生在巴基斯坦北部的一个7.6级地震的时候，这些施工技术上的缺点袒露无遗了,破坏了数以千计建筑物、桥梁, 而且造成估计79,000人的死亡。 在巴基斯坦这种十分低质量的混凝土施

28、工技术是造成这次极广破坏的主要原因。关键字：混凝土 浇筑 养护 混凝土浇筑若混凝土在地面上浇筑，地面应该具有足够的含水量以避免它吸收混凝土中的水分。如果新混凝土将被浇筑在已经凝固的混凝土上或其旁边，已浇混凝土表面应该彻底清除干净，最好使用高压空气、高压水流或钢丝刷。其表应潮湿，但不应有集水，应当在整个范围内刷上少量的水泥浆，然后立即铺上一层厚度为1/2in的砂浆。新混凝土应铺筑在砂浆上或其旁边。为减少混凝土在浇筑后由于运输导致的离析，混凝土的制备应该尽可能靠近最后浇筑的地方。它应该分层浇筑以使每层可被均压实。每层浇筑间隔的时间应该限制在能够保证新浇筑的混凝土与前面浇筑的有良好的结合。当向较深的

29、模板中浇筑混凝土时，就应该使用一根导管来限制混凝土的自由降落高度不超过3或4ft，以防止混凝土离析。这种导管是由轻金属制成的管子，具有可调节的长度而且被连接到储存的混凝土的罐的底部。当模板被浇筑满后，就可以抽出管节。混凝土一浇筑完成，应立即用手提振捣器或机器振捣器进行捣密后就应该移走，否则就会发生骨料离析。一般来说，振捣器不应该集中在先前提起的混凝土上。振捣主要优点是它允许使用较干的混凝土，由于减少了混凝土的含水量，这种混凝土有较高的强度。振捣混凝土的优点如下：1、水分的减少允许水泥和细集料的用量，因为这时需要较少的水泥浆。2、较低的含水量可减少收缩和空隙。3、较干的混凝土减少混凝土表面处理的

30、费用。4、机械振捣可代替38个手持振捣棒。5、较低的含水量可提高混凝土的强度。6、较干的混合料允许较早地拆除一些模板，这样可降低模板的造价。混凝土的养护 若混凝土想要获得最高强度或其它必要特性，则应该对其用足够的水分和适当的温度进行养护。如果没能提供这些条件，则会导致劣质的混凝土。混凝土中最初的水分足够所有水泥的水化反应，只要在使用前没有被蒸发。这可以用多种方法来实现，例如把模板留在混凝土中，保持表面潮湿，或在混凝土表面覆盖一层液体养生化合物，它可以形成一种不透水的隔膜来阻止混凝土中的水分遗失。养生化合物可以用刷子或压力喷嘴加到混凝土表面。一加仑可以覆盖200300ft2。混凝土应该在40F以

31、上或80F以下进行浇筑。低温会降低凝结速度，而高温会降低混凝土的极限强度。寒冷天气下的混凝土浇筑当混凝土在寒冷天气下浇筑时，通常有必要预先加热水、骨料或两者同时预热，以便使其初始温度能够保证混凝土的初凝并获得强度。对水进行预热是提供必要的温度最有效的方法。出于这一目的，蓄水池应该安装一个通有蒸气的蛇形管或将蒸气可以直接通到水中，这是可以使用多个排气口以提供良好的热量分布。当混合料的温度已知，一些专用图可以用来计算混凝土的温度。一条直线穿过所有三种比例，通过任意两个已知温度，就可以确定出第三个温度。如果砂的表面干燥，则应使用实线计算混凝土的温度。然而，如果砂含有3%的水分，则应使用虚线。规范通常

32、要求新浇筑的混凝土在浇筑后应保持3天温度不低于70F或5天不低于50F。当预计有寒冷天气时必须提供一些适当的方法来保持要求的温度。用于混凝土中的钢筋与混凝土相比，钢是一种高强度材料。普通钢筋在抗拉和抗压时可以利用的强度，即屈服强度，约为普通的结构混凝土抗压强度的1.5倍，而且超过抗拉强度的100倍。另一方面，与混凝土相比，钢材的成本要高得多。所以，两种材料最好的结合使用是混凝土用于抵抗压应力。因此，在钢筋混凝土梁内，混凝土抵抗压应力，纵向钢筋配置在靠近受拉面处以抵抗拉应力，通常还附加配有一些钢筋，抵抗梁内的剪应力所引起的斜向拉应力。然而，钢材也可以用于抵抗应力，主要是为了减小受压构件的截面尺寸

33、，例如用于多层建筑的下部楼层柱。即使不存在这种必要性，所有受压构件也要配置最少数量的钢筋， 以保证这些构件在偶然出现的小弯矩作用下的安全性，在这情况下，不加钢筋的混凝土构件可能会开裂，甚至破坏。使配筋最有效的发挥作用的基本条件是钢筋和混凝土的变形要一致，即这两种材料间要有足够强的黏结力，以确保钢筋和其周围混凝土间不发生相对移动。这种黏结力是由钢筋-混凝土结合面上较强的化学粘合作用，热轧钢筋表面层的固有粗糙度，以及间距较小的肋形表面变形等所构成的。钢筋的边面并行为两种材料间提供了很高的咬合作用。钢材以两种不同方式应用于混凝土中：普通钢筋和预应力钢筋。普通钢筋在浇筑混凝土之前先置于模板内。钢筋中的

34、应力，与硬化混凝土中的应力一样，除了由收缩或类似原因造成的附加应力外，仅仅是由结构上作用的荷载引起的，比较起来，在预应力混凝土结构中，在钢筋与混凝土共同工作承受外部荷载之前，对钢筋已施加了很大的拉力。最常见的钢筋的形式为圆棒状。现在可以使用的钢筋的直径范围很大，在一般的应用中从10到35毫米，两种大型钢筋的尺寸为44和57毫米。对这些钢筋表面进行了变形处理，其目的是增加钢筋与混凝土之间的抗滑能力。对这些变形的最低要求已经通过实验研究予以确定。不同的钢筋制造厂家采用不同的变形花纹，他们全部都能够满足这些要求。为了对钢筋进行拼接，或者便于制作置于模板内的钢筋骨架所进行的焊接，可能会引起金相的变化而

35、降低材料的强度和延性，因此，必须对所有钢材的类型和焊接规程加以特殊的限制。ASTM中的A706的条款是专门使用于焊接的。长期以来，在钢筋混凝土领域明显的趋向于高强度材料，包括钢筋和混凝土。屈服强度为40KSI的钢筋，在20年前几乎是标准的盲目前大部分已由屈服强度为60钢筋所取代。因为后者更为经济，而且使用他们可以减少模板内钢筋的拥挤状况。ACI规范允许使用强度FY=80KSI的钢筋。这类高强度钢筋通常是逐渐屈服的没有屈服平台。在这种情况下，ACI规范要求在规定的最小屈服强度时的总应变不应超过0.0035。这是将现行的设计方法应用于这类高强度钢筋时必须遵守的。现行的设计方法是按钢材突然屈服，而且

36、有屈服平台的情况而制定的。ASTM规范中没有关于屈服强度高于60KSI的变形钢筋的条款，但是在实际中可能使用这种钢筋，根据ACI规范，他们可以在根据上述的要求的情况下使用。在特殊情况下，例如高层建筑的下部楼层的柱子，使用这一高强度范围内的钢筋就非常适合。在恶劣的环境田间下，例如受除冰化学剂侵蚀的荞麦内，要求使用镀锌或环氧树脂涂层的钢筋，以便使钢筋的腐蚀和随之发生的混凝土的剥落减至最小。混凝土结构的修复钢筋混凝土是非常耐用的结构材料，它需要的修复工作很少。然而，它的耐用性受很多因素的影响。这包括那些设计和施工的失误，使用劣质材料和在侵蚀性环境下暴露。修复的必要性主要取决于对破坏程度的诊断。如果某

37、项工程不只需要作装饰性处理，好的工作技巧很重要。1、修复系统的功能要求通过对事故的仔细诊断并找到损坏的原因之后，下一步是考虑修复方法的要求，这样会我到一个解决问题的有效方法。（参看图）耐久性选择有相当耐久性的修复材料非常重要。修复工作所用的材料最起码也要像基层混凝土那样耐用。钢筋的保护对加劲钢筋的保护机理取决于所使用的修复材料的类型。例如，粘性材料能促使混凝土碱性增加，其抑制作用能保护钢筋免受更深的侵蚀，而环氧树脂砂浆可防止氧气、水分和其它有害物的侵人。基片粘结使用基片粘结可进行完整的修复，它可防止水分和大气从界面进人。大多数的修复材料，通过使用合适的粘合手段，其粘合性能已大大地改善了，如环氧

38、树脂系统使用未填充的环氧底漆，普通水泥修复系统使用普通水泥稀浆加上任何一种乳胶添加剂。所要采用的预防措施是：对即将被粘结的表面，必须先清理其上面的疏松和易碎的物质。尺寸稳定性在养护期间，材料的收缩要保持到最小，为了防止修复失败、材料的尺寸变化应与基层材料相当接近。对环境引起的损伤的早期防护一些开始就暴露在外的情况会引起修复的过早损坏。例如，热天会阻碍水泥的水合作用从而使局部修复的普通水泥发生变质，为了防止发生这种情况，养护期间应对其作特别的保护。操作方便材料应当易混合和方便使用，这样可以随时填到裂缝和孔隙里去，材料最好是不粘工具，用泥刀修平时不剥落，填筑后不坍塌。外观修复材料与现有混凝土的匹配

39、程度取决于所修补的结构和业主的要求。当外观很重要或钢筋的保护层很薄时，要求采用镶面处理。2、修复方法的选择适当的修复就是消除与结构使用有关的所有缺陷。认真考虑选择正确的方法和某一特定操作所用的材料，弄清到底是要满足强度、耐用性的特定要求还是满足其它的长期或短期的性能要求。这些因素包括：1.损伤的性质如果活动裂缝里填的是刚性材料，那么不但填补材料会断裂，而且旧裂缝周围也会产生新的裂缝，修复活动裂缝的方法是要么采用柔性材料以适应结构位移，要么在修复之前采取一定措施消除结构位移。2断裂的部位依靠材料重力填充裂缝技术在水平面上裂缝修补中的成功率较高，但在竖直面上裂缝修补中效果很差。3环境如果裂缝里有水

40、气、水和杂物时，要先补好漏洞。如果结构还处于工作状态并且环境潮湿时，会使得堵住漏洞这一工作更加困难。4.工艺工人所采用的修复工艺是另一个与修复有关的因素，有时它意味着水久性修复或者修复材料过早损坏。5成本与为修复工作提供通路、做准备工作和实际劳力的成本相比，所用的修复材料的成本是相当小的。6.外观修复部位的表面可能很难看，特别是当它处于建筑物显眼的地方时。在这种情况下，修复工作系统就要包括对整个表面进行某种处理。Concrete Placing Curing Abstract Viewed in terms of accepted practices, concrete constructio

41、n operations leave much to be desired with respect to the quality, serviceability, and safety of completed structures. The shortcomings of these operations became abundantly clear when a magnitude 7.6 earthquake struck northern Paki-stan on October 8, 2005, destroying thousands of buildings, damagin

42、g bridges, and killing an esti-mated 79,000 people. The unusually low quality of construction operations prevalent was a major cause of the immense devastation. Keywords: Concrete Placing Curing Placing Concrete If concrete is placed in the surface, the surface should be filled with water sufficient

43、ly to prevent it from absorbing the concrete of its water.If fresh concrete is to be placed on or nearby to concrete that has solidified, the surface of the placed concrete should be cleaned absolutely, preferably with a high-pressure air or water jetor steel-wire brushes. The surface should be wet,

44、 but there should be no much water. A little quantity of cement grout should be brushed over the whole area, and then followed immediately with the application of a 1/2-in Layer of mortar. The fresh concrete should be placed on or against the mortar. In order to decrease the disintegration resulting

45、 from carriage after it is placed. The concrete should be placed as nearly as probably in its final point. It should be placed in layers to permit uniform compaction. The time interval between the placing of layers should be limited to assure perfect bond between the fresh and previously placed conc

46、rete. In placing concrete in deeper patters, a vessel should be used limit the free fall to not over 3 or 4 ft, in order to prevent concrete disintegration. The vessel is a pipe made of lightweight metal, having adjustable lengths and attached to the bottom of a hopper into which the concrete is dep

47、osited. As the patters are filled, sections of the pipe may be removed. Immediately after the concrete is placed, it should be compacted by hand pudding or a mechanical vibrator to eliminate voids. The vibrator should be left in one position only long enough to reduce the concrete around it to a pla

48、stic mass; then the vibrator should be moved, or disintegration of the aggregate will occur. In general, the vibrator should not be permitted to penetrate concrete in the prior lift. The mainly advantage of vibrating is that it permits the use of a drier concrete, which has a higher strength because

49、 of the reduced water content. Among the advantages of vibrating concrete are the following: 1. The decreased water permits a reduction in the cement and fine aggregate because less cement paste is needed. 2. The lower water content decreases shrinkage and voids. 3. The drier concrete decreases the

50、cost of finishing the surface. 4. Mechanical vibration may replace three to eight hand puddles. 5. The lower water content increases the strength of the concrete. 6. The drier mixture permits the removal of some patters more quickly, which may reduce the cost of patters. Curing Concrete If concrete

51、is to gain its maximum strength and other desirable properties, it should be cured with adequate moisture and at a favorable temperature. Failure to provide these conditions may result in an inferior concrete. The initial moisture in concrete is adequate to hydrate all the cement, provided it is not

52、 should replace the moisture that does evaporate. This may be accomplished by many methods, such as leaving the patters in place, keeping the surface wet, or covering the surface with a liquid .curing compound, which comes being to a water-tight membrane that prevents the escape of the initial water

53、. Curing compounds may be applied by brushes or pressure sprayers. A gallon will cover 200 to 300 sq ft. Concrete should be placed at a temperature not less than 40 or more than 80 F.A lower temperature will decrease the rate of setting, while a higher temperature will decrease the ultimate strength

54、. Placing Concrete in Cold Weather When the concrete is placed during cold weather, it is usually necessary to preheat the water, the aggregate, or both in order that the initial temperature will assure an initial set and gain in strength .Preheating the water is the most effective method of providi

55、ng the necessary temperature. For this purpose a water reservoir should be equipped with pipe coils through which steam can be passed, or steam may be discharged directly into the water, several outlets being used to given better distribution of the heat. When the temperatures of the mixtures are kn

56、own, some specific charts may be used to calculate the temperature of concrete. A straight line pass all three scales, passing through every two known temperatures, will assure the determination of the third temperature. If the surface of sand is dry, the fact lines of the scales giving the temperat

57、ure of concrete should be used. However, if the sand contains about 3 percent moisture, the dotted lines should be used. Specifications usually demand that freshly placed concrete shall be kept at a temperature of not less than 70F for 3 days or 50F for 5 days after it is placed. Some proper method

58、must be provided to keep the demanded temperature when the cold weather is estimated. Reinforcing steels for concrete Compared with concrete, steel is a high strength material. The useful strength of ordinary reinforcing steels in tension as well as compression, i.e., the yield strength, is about 15

59、 times the compressive strength of common structural concrete, and well over 100 times its tensile strength. On the other hand, steel is a high-cost material compared with concrete. It follow that the two materials are the best used in combination if the concrete is made to resist the compressive st

60、resses and the compressive force, longitudinal steel reinforcing bars are located close to the tension face to resist the tension force., and usually additional steel bars are so disposed that they resist the inclined tension stresses that are caused by the shear force in the beams. However, reinfor

61、cement is also used for resisting compressive forces primarily where it is desired to reduce the cross-sectional dimensions of compression members, as in the lower-floor columns of multi-story buildings. Even if no such necessity exits , a minimum amount of reinforcement is placed in all compression

62、 members to safeguard them against the effects of small accidental bending moments that might crack and even fail an unreinforced member. For most effective reinforcing action, it is essential that steel and concrete deform together, i.e., that there be a sufficiently strong bond between the two mat

63、erials to ensure that no relative movements of the steel bars and the surrounding concrete occur. This bond is provided by the relatively large chemical adhesion which develops at the steel-concrete interface, by the natural roughness of the mill scale of hot-rolled reinforcing bars , and by the clo

64、sely spaced rib-shaped surface deformations with which reinforcing bars are furnished in order to provide a high degree of interlocking of the two materials. Steel is used in two different ways in concrete structures: as reinforcing steel and as prestressing steel .reinforcing steel is placed in the

65、 forms prior to casting of the concrete. Stresses in the steel, as in the hardened concrete, are caused only by the loads on the structure, except for possible parasitic stresses from shrinkage or similar causes. In contrast, in priestesses concrete structures large tension forces are applied to the reinforcement prior to letting it act jointly with the concrete in resisting external. The most common type of reinforcing steel is in the form of round bars, sometimes called rebars, available in a large ra