HOW WE THINK(JOHN DEWEY)

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1、How We ThinkJone DeweyPart One: The Problem of Training ThoughtChapter 1: What is ThoughtI. Varied Senses of the TermFour senses of thought, from the wider to the limitedNo words are oftener on our lips than thinking and thought. So profuse and varied, indeed, is our use of these words that it is no

2、t easy to define just what we mean by them. The aim of this chapter is to find a single consistent meaning. Assistance may be had by considering some typical ways in which the terms are employed. In the first place thought is used broadly, not to say loosely. Everything that comes to mind, that goes

3、 through our heads, is called a thought. To think of a thing is just to be conscious of it in any way whatsoever. Second, the term is restricted by excluding whatever is directly presented; we think (or think of) only such things as we do not directly see, hear, smell, or taste. Then, third, the mea

4、ning is further limited to beliefs that rest upon some kind of evidence or testimony. Of this third type, two kinds or, rather, two degrees must be discriminated. In some cases, a belief is accepted with slight or almost no attempt to state the grounds that support it. In other cases, the ground or

5、basis for a belief is deliberately sought and its(2) adequacy to support the belief examined. This process is called reflective thought; it alone is truly educative in value, and it forms, accordingly, the principal subject of this volume. We shall now briefly describe each of the four senses.Chance

6、 and idle thinking1. In its loosest sense, thinking signifies everything that, as we say, is in our heads or that goes through our minds. He who offers a penny for your thoughts does not expect to drive any great bargain. In calling the objects of his demand thoughts, he does not intend to ascribe t

7、o them dignity, consecutiveness, or truth. Any idle fancy, trivial recollection, or flitting impression will satisfy his demand. Daydreaming, building of castles in the air, that loose flux of casual and disconnected material that floats through our minds in relaxed moments are, in this random sense

8、, thinking. More of our waking life than we should care to admit, even to ourselves, is likely to be whiled away in this inconsequential trifling with idle fancy and unsubstantial hope.Reflective thought is consecutive, not merely a sequenceIn this sense, silly folk and dullards think. The story is

9、told of a man in slight repute for intelligence, who, desiring to be chosen selectman in his New England town, addressed a knot of neighbors in this wise: I hear you dont believe I know enough to hold office. I wish you to understand that I am thinking about something or other most of the time. Now

10、reflective thought is like this random coursing of things through the mind in that it consists of a succession of things thought of ; but it is unlike, in that the mere chance occurrence of any chance something or other in an irregular sequence does not suffice. Reflection involves not simply a sequ

11、ence of ideas, but a consequence a consecutive ordering in such a way that(3) each determines the next as its proper outcome, while each in turn leans back on its predecessors. The successive portions of the reflective thought grow out of one another and support one another; they do not come and go

12、in a medley. Each phase is a step from something to something technically speaking, it is a term of thought. Each term leaves a deposit which is utilized in the next term. The stream or flow becomes a train, chain, or thread.The restriction of thinking to what goes beyond direct observationReflectiv

13、e thought aims, however, at beliefII. Even when thinking is used in a broad sense, it is usually restricted to matters not directly perceived: to what we do not see, smell, hear, or touch. We ask the man telling a story if he saw a certain incident happen, and his reply may be, No, I only thought of

14、 it. A note of invention, as distinct from faithful record of observation, is present. Most important in this class are successions of imaginative incidents and episodes which, having a certain coherence, hanging together on a continuous thread, lie between kaleidoscopic flights of fancy and conside

15、rations deliberately employed to establish a conclusion. The imaginative stories poured forth by children possess all degrees of internal congruity; some are disjointed, some are articulated. When connected, they simulate reflective thought; indeed, they usually occur in minds of logical capacity. T

16、hese imaginative enterprises often precede thinking of the close-knit type and prepare the way for it. But they do not aim at knowledge, at belief about facts or in truths ; and thereby they are marked off from reflective thought even when they most resemble it. Those who express such thoughts do no

17、t expect credence, but rather credit for a well-constructed plot or a well-arranged climax. They produce good stories, not unless by chance (4) knowledge. Such thoughts are an efflorescence of feeling; the enhancement of a mood or sentiment is their aim; congruity of emotion, their binding tie.Thoug

18、ht Induces belief in two waysIII. In its next sense, thought denotes belief resting upon some basis, that is, real or supposed knowledge going beyond what is directly present. It is marked by acceptance or rejection of something as reasonably probable or improbable. This phase of thought, however, i

19、ncludes two such distinct types of belief that, even though their difference is strictly one of degree, not of kind, it becomes practically important to consider them separately. Some beliefs are accepted when their grounds have not themselves been considered, others are accepted because their groun

20、ds have been examined.When we say, Men used to think the world was flat, or, I thought you went by the house, we express belief something is accepted, held to, acquiesced in, or affirmed. But such thoughts may mean a supposition accepted without reference to its real grounds. These may be adequate,

21、they may not; but their value with reference to the support they afford the belief has not been considered.Such thoughts grow up unconsciously and without reference to the attainment of correct belief. They are picked up we know not how. From obscure sources and by unnoticed channels they insinuate

22、themselves into acceptance and become unconsciously a part of our mental furniture. Tradition, instruction, imitation all of which depend upon authority in some form, or appeal to our own advantage, or fall in with a strong passion are responsible for them. Such thoughts are prejudices, that is, pre

23、judgments, not(5) judgments proper that rest upon a survey of evidence.1Thinking in its best sense is that which considers the basis and consequences of beliefIV. Thoughts that result in belief have an importance I attached to them which leads to reflective thought to conscious inquiry into the natu

24、re, conditions, and bearings of the belief. To think of whales and camels in the clouds is to entertain ourselves with fancies, terminable at our pleasure, which do not lead to any belief in particular. But to think of the world as flat is to ascribe a quality to a real thing as its real property. T

25、his conclusion denotes a connection among things and hence is not, like imaginative thought, plastic to our mood. Belief in the worlds flatness commits him who holds it to thinking in certain specific ways of other objects, such as the heavenly bodies, antipodes, the possibility of navigation. It pr

26、escribes to him actions in accordance with his conception of these objects.The consequences of a belief upon other beliefs and upon behavior may be so important, then, that men are forced to consider the grounds or reasons of their belief and its logical consequences. This means reflective thought -

27、thought in its eulogistic and emphatic sense.Men thought the world was flat until Columbus thought it to be round. The earlier thought was a belief held because men had not the energy or the courage to question what those about them accepted and taught, especially as it was suggested and seemingly c

28、onfirmed by obvious sensible facts. The thought of Columbus was a reasoned conclusion. It marked the close of study into facts, of scrutiny and revision of evidence, of working out the implications of various hypotheses, and ofReflective thought defined(6) comparing these theoretical results with on

29、e another and with known facts. acts. Because Columbus did not accept unhesitatingly the current traditional theory, because he doubted and inquired, he arrived at his thought. Skeptical of what, from long habit, seemed most certain, and credulous of what seemed impossible, he went on thinking until

30、 he could produce evidence for both his confidence and his disbelief. Even if his conclusion had finally turned out wrong, it would have been a different sort of belief from those it antagonized, because it was reached by a different method. Active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belie

31、f or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends, constitutes reflective thought. Any one of the first three kinds of thought may elicit this type; but once begun, it is a conscious and voluntary effort to establish belief upo

32、n a firm basis of reasons.2.The Central Factor in ThinkingThere is a common element in all types of thought:There are, however, no sharp lines of demarcation between the various operations just outlined. The problem of attaining correct habits of reflection would be much easier than it is, did not t

33、he different modes of thinking blend insensibly into one another. So far, we have considered rather extreme instances of each kind in order to get the field clearly before us. Let us now reverse this operation; let us consider a rudimentary case of thinking, lying between careful examination of evid

34、ence and a mere irresponsible stream of fancies. A man is walking on a warm day. The sky was clear the last time he observed it; but presently be notes, while occupied primarily with other things, that the air is cooler. It occurs to him that it is probably going to(7) rain; looking up, he sees a da

35、rk cloud between him and the sun, and he then quickens his steps. What, if anything, in such a situation can be called thought? Neither the act of walking nor the noting of the cold is a thought. Walking is one direction of activity; looking and noting are other modes of activity. The likelihood tha

36、t it will rain is, however, something suggested. The pedestrian feels the cold ; he thinks of clouds and a coming shower.viz. suggestion of something not observed.But reflection involves also the relation of signifyingSo far there is the same sort of situation as when one looking at a cloud is remin

37、ded of a human figure and face. Thinking in both of these cases (the cases of belief and of fancy) involves a noted or perceived fact, followed by something else which is not observed but which is brought to mind, suggested by the thing seen. One reminds us, as we say, of the other. Side by side, ho

38、wever, with this factor of agreement in the two cases of suggestion is a factor of marked disagreement. We do not believe in the face suggested by the cloud; we do not consider at all the probability of its being a fact. There is no reflective thought. The danger of rain, on the contrary, presents i

39、tself to us as a genuine possibility -as a possible fact of the same nature as the observed coolness. Put differently, we do not regard the cloud as meaning or indicating a face, but merely as suggesting it, while we do consider that the coolness may mean rain. In the first case, seeing an object, w

40、e just happen, as we say, to think of something else; in the second, we consider the possibility and nature of the connection between the object seen and the object suggested. The seen thing is regarded as in some way the ground or basis of belief in the suggested thing; it possesses the quality of

41、evidence.Various synonymous expressions for the function of signifying(8)This function by which one thing signifies or indicates another, and thereby leads us to consider how far one may be regarded as warrant for belief in the other, is, then, the central factor in all reflective or distinctively i

42、ntellectual thinking. By calling up various situations to which such terms as signifies and indicates apply, the student will best realize for himself the actual facts denoted by the words reflective thought. Synonyms for these terms are: points to, tells of, betokens, prognosticates, represents, st

43、ands for, implies.2 We also say one thing portends another; is ominous of another, or a symptom of it, or a key to it, or (if the connection is quite obscure) that it gives a hint, clue, or intimation.Reflection and belief on evidenceReflection thus implies that something is believed in or disbeliev

44、ed in), not on its own direct account, but through something else which stands as witness, evidence, proof, voucher, warrant; that is, as ground of belief. At one time, rain is actually felt or directly experienced; at another time, we infer that it has rained from the looks of the grass and trees,

45、or that it is going to rain because of the condition of the air or the state of the barometer. At one time, we see a man (or suppose we do) without any intermediary fact; at another time, we are not quite sure what we see, and hunt for accompanying facts that will serve as signs, indications, tokens

46、 of what is to be believed.Thinking, for the purposes of this inquiry, is defined accordingly as that operation in which present facts suggest other facts (or truths) in such a way as to induce be-(9) -lief in the latter upon the ground or warrant of the former. We do not put beliefs that rest simpl

47、y on inference on the surest level of assurance. To say I think so implies that I do not as yet know so. The inferential belief may later be confirmed and come to stand as sure, but in itself it always has a certain element of supposition.3. Elements in Reflective ThinkingSo much for the description

48、 of the more external and obvious aspects of the fact called thinking. Further consideration at once reveals certain subprocesses which are involved in every reflective operation. These are: (a) a state of perplexity, hesitation, doubt; and (b) an act of search or investigation directed toward bring

49、ing to light further facts which serve to corroborate or to nullify the suggested belief.The importance of uncertainty(a) In our illustration, the shock of coolness generated confusion and suspended belief, at least momentarily. Because it was unexpected, it was a shock or an interruption needing to

50、 be accounted for, identified, or placed. To say that the abrupt occurrence of the change of temperature constitutes a problem may sound forced and artificial; but if we are willing to extend the meaning of the word problem to whatever no matter how slight and commonplace in character perplexes and

51、challenges the mind so that it makes belief at all uncertain, there is a genuine problem or question involved in this experience of sudden change.and of inquiry in order to test(b) The turning of the head, the lifting of the eyes, the scanning of the heavens, are activities adapted to bring to recog

52、nition facts that will answer the question presented by the sudden coolness. The facts as they(10) first presented themselves were perplexing; they suggested, however, clouds. The act of looking was an act to discover if this suggested explanation held good. It may again seem forced to speak of this

53、 looking, almost automatic, as an act of research or inquiry. But once more, if we are willing to generalize our conceptions of our mental operations to include the trivial and ordinary as well as the technical and recondite, there is no good reason for refusing to give such a title to the act of lo

54、oking. The purport of this act of inquiry is to confirm or to refute the suggested belief. New facts are brought to perception, which either corroborate the idea that a change of weather is imminent, or negate it.Finding ones way an illustration of reflectionAnother instance, commonplace also, yet n

55、ot quite so trivial, may enforce this lesson. A man traveling in an unfamiliar region comes to a branching of the roads. Having no sure knowledge to fall back upon, he is brought to a standstill of hesitation and suspense. Which road is right? And how shall perplexity be resolved? There are but two

56、alternatives: he must either blindly and arbitrarily take his course, trusting to luck for the outcome, or he must discover grounds for the conclusion that a given road is right. Any attempt to decide the matter by thinking will involve inquiry into other facts, whether brought out by memory or by f

57、urther observation, or by both. The perplexed wayfarer must carefully scrutinize what is before him and he must cudgel his memory. He looks for evidence that will support belief in favor of either of the roads -for evidence that will weight down one suggestion. He may climb a tree; he may go first i

58、n this direction, then in that, looking, in either case, for signs, clues,(11) indications. He wants something in the nature of a signboard or a map, and his reflection is aimed at the discovery of facts that will serve this purpose.Possible, yet incompatible, suggestionsThe above illustration may b

59、e generalized. Thinking begins in what may fairly enough be called a forked- road situation, a situation which is ambiguous, which presents a dilemma, which proposes alternatives. As long as our activity glides smoothly along from one thing to another, or as long as we permit our imagination to ente

60、rtain fancies at pleasure, there is no call for reflection. Difficulty or obstruction in the way of reaching a belief brings us, however, to a pause. In the suspense of uncertainty, we metaphorically climb a tree; we try to find some standpoint from which we may survey additional facts and, getting

61、a more commanding view of the situation, may decide how the facts stand related to one another.Regulation of thinking by its purposeDemand for the solution of a perplexity is the steadying and guiding factor in the entire process of reflection. Where there is no question of a problem to be solved or

62、 a difficulty to be surmounted, the course of suggestions flows on at random; we have the first type of thought described. If the stream of suggestions is controlled simply by their emotional congruity, their fitting agreeably into a single picture or story, we have the second type. But a question t

63、o be answered, an ambiguity to be resolved, sets up an end and holds the current of ideas to a definite channel. Every suggested conclusion is tested by its reference to this regulating end, by its pertinence to the problem in band. This need of straightening out a perplexity also controls the kind

64、of inquiry undertaken. A traveler whose end is the most beautiful path will look for other considerations and(12) will test suggestions occurring to him on another principle than if he wishes to discover the way to a given city. The problem fixes the end of thought and the end controls the process o

65、f thinking.4. SummaryOrigin and stimulusWe may recapitulate by saying that the origin of thinking is some perplexity, confusion, or doubt. Thinking is not a case of spontaneous combustion; it does not occur just on general principles. There is something specific which occasions and evokes it. Genera

66、l appeals to a child (or to a grown-up) to think, irrespective of the existence in his own experience of some difficulty that troubles him and disturbs his equilibrium, are as futile as advice to lift himself by his boot-straps.Suggestion and past experienceGiven a difficulty, the next step is suggest