专业英语毕业论文Food safety and public health

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1、 Food safety and public health Food safety is unique among the various public health programmes. Its pluri- disciplinary(学科) and multi-sectoralnature（自然联盟）), which can be interpreted as both an advantage and a disadvantage, results in a blend of voluntary and mandatory （强制性）approaches which have no

2、counterparts（同行） in other programmes. The health sector is usually expected to assume a coordination role for all the stakeholders（利益相关者） including government,industry and consumer.The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures of the World Trade Organization （卫生与植物卫生措施的世界贸易

3、组织） calls for growing integration（整合） of health science into food safety requirements to increase their consistency and transparency（透明度）. As part of the Health for All strategy of the World Health Organization, the food safety programme should be given higher priority in the design and implementati

4、on of the national plans of action for nutrition.Keywords: public health; “Health for All” strategy; primary health care; International Conference for Nutrition; risk analysis; food trade.INTRODUCTION The accumulated advances in food safety can be seen in the context of our success in the control an

5、d prevention of communicable（传染性）diseases. Over the past hundred years, better scientific under- tanding of food safety hazards（危害）and their control, including the application of food technology - e.g. asturisation has contributed to an ever safer food supply, at least in industrialized countries. S

6、everal food-borne diseases such as cholera（霍乱）, typhoid （伤寒） and para- yphoid fevers, have been virtually eliminated（消除） in the eveloped world. However, the number of reported cases of food-borne diseases started to increase beginning about three decades ago.In some developed countries,sharp increas

7、es in salmonellosis and campy- obacterosis have been reported.THE MEANING OF PUBLIC HEALTH AND “HEALTH FOR ALL” STRATEGY Before answering the above questions, it may be useful to go back to the original meaning of public health and try to position food safety as a sub-domain（子） of public health. In

8、order to define public health, we need to begin by examining what we mean by public. The public is usually thought of as a population or sub- group of people who share a certain profile（侧面）, often identified by a geographic and temporal location. A given public may have, more or less, a common lifes

9、tyle, a certain set of daily demands, living condi- tions, and/or exposures（暴露） to health/social hazards. Even a common degree of access to health and social services may define a given public. Throughout history, there have been such epochsand such places, where a clearly identified public existed.

10、 It was the case for coal miners and, to some extent, their families, who lived in Great Britain during the nineteenth century, for instance. They can be considered as a public, in the sense that they all confronted common socio-economic and health prob- lems.The fact that the formation of slums（贫民窟

11、） for the working classes in industrial cities during the Industrial Revolution overlapped（重叠）the genesis（创世纪） of public health is not a mere coincidence. It is obvious that the evolution of epidemiology as a modern science has led to the policies and interventions which we now callpublic health. To

12、day, not only in industrialized countries but also in developing countries, it is becoming more and more difficult to characterize a traditional social class as a public. Often when such a public is identified, it is more heterogeneous and transient, as seen in refugee populations. Accordingly, one

13、can hardly foresee itsformation, nor can interventions be developed and implemented（实施） in due course. Paradoxically（矛盾的是）, at the same time as traditional publics are fragmented（支离破碎）, globalization is contributing to the homogenization（均）of other aspects of the worlds popula- tion. The travel and

14、migration（迁移） of human beings and the transport of merchandise（货物） as well as the transmission of information have introduced common elements into widely divergent（发散） cultures and societies. We are not surprised to note, for instance, certain brands of fast food are scattered（分散） all over the world

15、. As seen so far, the concept of the public in a conventional sense is giving way to newly emerging straightforward manner and who share fewer common features than did the old. As with the word public, the term health has also changed its meaning. As is well known, health science has, by and large（总

16、的来说）, two major branches. The one focuses on promotion of health and prevention of diseases; the other is centred on treatment of diseases and rehabilitation（康复） of disorders（紊乱）. Though health science put its early emphasis on the curative（治疗） side, it rapidly enlarged its field to the preventive s

17、ide, and particularly, to the promotion of health. The epidemics（流行病） of emerging dis- eases, such as HIV/AIDS, for which we possess no effective means of treatment so far, requir epreventive approaches. The increasing burden of health care cost in many countries has lead us to turn towards more cos

18、t-effective preventive approaches. The target of preventive health care is usually the public, since its methodology（目标） is based on the validity（有效的） across individuals. It is the curative measures that deal with sick individuals. In other words, any public health oriented（导向） approach should have

19、in its scope the public as object either suffering from the same pathology or subject to the same health risk inherent（固有） in their lifestyles, living conditions, or other common factors.When we look at the current world situation, the most striking（显著的）fact is that the disparity（差距） in health statu

20、s between least developed countries and developed countries has actually widened over the past decade. For instance, infant mortality now ranges from 5-160. It is in this context that the Director-General（总干事） of WHO stated in May 1995 that access to health for all, including the poorest and most vu

21、lnerable countries and population groups, remains the guiding purpose of WHOs programmes and its cooperation with countries. If these gaps are to be bridged through our concerted efforts, equity and solidarity are key concepts in realizing the goal of Health for All acrossmany populations facing dif

22、ferent kinds of social and economic problems.Food safety, which is one of the preventive approaches to health, cannot be free from the trends above regarding the changing nature of the public and the ever growing health gaps（人群） between population groups. In order to prevent not only a range of food

23、-borne（食源） diseases but also the malnutrition（营养不良） caused by infectious diarrhoea（腹泻）, a wide range of biomedical analyses and socio-economic evaluations of the target population will be necessary when developing a food safety programme. In addressing（解决） this major issue of public health, WHO iden

24、tified promoting and protecting health as one of four interrelated（相关） policy orientations in its Ninth General Programme of Work covering the period 19962001. The Programme aims at mobilizing all resources related to health promotion and protection, including employment, education, housing, town pl

25、anning, price control, agricultural policy, financing and economic policies and laws and regulations, so that nutritional status（地位） for all population groups be improved continuously, that they have universal access to safe and healthy environments and living conditions and that all people adopt an

26、d maintain（维持） healthy lifestyles and behaviour.MODULARITY OF PUBLIC HEALTH AND ITS POSITION IN GOVERNMENT SYSTEMSPublic health, as a comprehensive（综合的） set of sciences and measures aiming at the protection and promotion of the health of the public, is implemented（实施） in real society through two maj

27、or structures. The first one is the so-called functional infrastructure（基础建设）, ie basic mechanisms（机制） which assess the needs of the population and put the necessary measures in place. They include norm setting and management bodies, national and local health offices, dispensaries, hospitals and oth

28、er facilities, manpower development courses, information systems, mass media and research institutes（机构） and laboratories, to name but a few.The second component can be seen as a kind of software which is designed to run on the hardware mentioned above. Each piece of software corresponds o a specifi

29、c programme of public health, such as maternal(公共项目) and child health, non-communicable（非传染性）disease control, and food safety. It should be borne in mind that the development of he former component constitutes one of the necessary conditions for the implementation（实施） of the latter, and, hat conside

30、rable interactions（互动） take he hardware and the software different software programmes at service delivery system. A simple example suffices. If an important part of the infrastructure, eg an information system, is lacking, this then handicaps（障碍） the whole system of primary health care. Conversely,

31、 once a specific part of the infrastructure is put in place, it can contribute to every public health programme. This may even stimulate competition between different programmes for the privileged（特权）use of such resources. However. the interactions are not necessarily negative ones. Positive interac

32、tions are also expected and should been couraged by public health managers. For example, family education for the safe preparation of weaning food is all the more efficient and effective when implemented（实施）by the same public health nurse who visits the families and checks the infants growth and dev

33、elopment. The essential point is that each programme should maximally benefit from the interaction with otheractions of public health. Furthermore, different infrastructure areas and programme elements must be coordinated at the family, community, district and higher levels. The cooperation and coor

34、dination between adjacent modules/levels are indispensable for the primary health care system to be comprehensive, efficient and sutainable. INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVEThe International Conference on Nutrition (ICN), which was held in December 1992 in Rome, adopted the World Declaration(宣言) and Plan o

35、f Action for Nutrition, recognizing that access to nutritonally adequate and safe food is a right of each indivdiual. The World Health Organization, which has made nutrition a priorty（优先）area, has been assisting governments in implementing（实施） the recommendations of ICN, through the publication of g

36、uideline documents and the evaluation of the national plans of action. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), which took place in June 1992 in Riode Janeiro, also referred to the need for promotion and protection of health through prevention of communicable diseases an

37、d the management of toxic（有毒） chemicals. Together with the United Nations Environmental Programme and the Food and Agriculture Organization, WHO has been monitoring（监测） the environmental contamination level in food of heavy metals, pesticides and other contaminants.WHO is also responsible for the sc

38、ientific assessment（评估） of the risks such chemical pose to human health, not only in food but also in other routes of exposure.CONCLUSION Food safety can be defined as all conditions and measures that are necessary during the production, processing, storage, distribution（配送） and preparation of food

39、to ensure that, when ingested（消化、吸收）, it does not represent an appreciable risk to health. In this sense, food safety is certainly a branch of public health which deserves higher priority in any public health programme. The fact that food safety is a common concern of government, industry and consum

40、ers calls for a coordination（协调） of the quality assurance processes along the food chain. In this context, the health sector should assume the lead role for norm setting. This implies that the health sector is expected to be involved at all stages of the food chain（链条）, nationally and internationall

41、y. WHOs role in promoting and protecting the health of people is based on public health principles. Technical cooperation with individual governments and the elaboration of international norms are among the pillars of WHOs Health for All strategy. It is exactly the case for food safety. All the sect

42、ors, national or international, need to collaborate with each other. They should share the overall responsibility for food safety as a part of public health programmes.REFERENCES Abdussalam, M. and Kiiferstein, F.K. (1994) Food safety in primary health care, World Health Forum 15, 393-399 Allen, R.J

43、.L. and Klferstein, F.K. (1983) Foodborne disease, food hygiene and consumer education. Archiv fur Lehensmittelhygiene 34, 81-108 Anonymous: Protecting consumers through improved food quality and safety, Theme Paper No. 2, Major Issues for Nutrition Sfrategies, International Conference on Nutrition

44、- Final Document Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme - Codex Alimentarius Commission (1992) Code of Efhics for international Trade in Food Rev I GATT (1994) Understanding the World Trade Organization Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Moy, G., KPferstein, F.K. and Motarjemi, Y. (199

45、4) Application of HACCP to food manufacturing, Food Control 5(3), 131-139 WHO (1995) Application of risk analysis io food standards issues, Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation, WHO/ FNU/FOS 95.3 WHO: Guidelines for Developing or Sfrengthening the National Food Safety Programme - Response

46、 to the Declaration and Plan of Action of the International Conference on Nufrition (Draft), WHO/FNU/FOS 94.6 (under finalisation) WHO (1984) The Role of Food Safety in Human and Development, Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Safety, Technical Report Series No. 705 WHO (1992) Health

47、 consequences of biological contamination and chemicals in food, Chapter 9 of Report of the Panel on Food and Agriculture 食品安全与公共卫生(08食品科学与工程 任莉 2008651010)食品安全是独特的,在众多的公共卫生项目一样。它的多学科、自然之道,这可以理解为一种既优势和劣势的一方,导致志愿和强制性的混合,哪种方法没有与其他课程。卫生部门通常是期待在协调作用的各利益相关者包括政府、工业和消费者。该协议的应用的卫生与植物卫生措施世界贸易组织呼吁健康科学整合到成长来增加

48、他们的食品安全要求的一致性和透明度。作为一切为了健康的一份子，所有“战略的世界卫生组织的数据显示，食品安全计划应给予更高优先级的设计,实施国家计划的行动的营养。关键词:公众健康;“健康”战略;初级卫生保健营养;国际营养研讨会,风险分析;食品贸易。引言在食品安全中不断的进步可以看出我们的成功的控制和预防传染性疾病工作。在过去的几年里,更科学和贸易下的食品安全危害及其控制中的应用,包括食品技术-例如, asturisation为安全食品做出了积极的贡献 前所未有的粮食供应安全,至少在工业化国家。几种食源性疾病,例如霍乱、伤寒和托马斯发烧,已经几乎消除在开发的世界。然而, 报道的数量显示食源性疾病的

49、案例开始增加, 开始于三年前。在一些发达国家,急剧上涨,据沙门氏菌曾被报告过。 公共卫生的意义和“健康”的策略 在回答上述问题,回到本源意义上的公共健康和给食品安全卫生找到合适的位置。为了界定公共健康,我们需要首先检查我们所说的“公共”。“公共”通常被认为是一个种群的或某一群人分享某个侧面,经常被一个地理和时间的位置。一个给定的公众的可能,或多或少,一个普通的生活方式,一系列特定的日常需求,赖斯-生活,和/或对其健康/社会危害暴露。甚至一个共同的学位获得健康和社会服务可以定义一个给定的“公共”。在历史上,有这样的这样的地方,一条明确的公共存在。这是煤矿工人和情况,在某种程度上,他们的家庭,他们

50、住在英国19世纪时,例如。他们可以被看作是一个“公共”,在这个意义上说,它们都面临共同社会经济和健康问题时候了。 事实的形成为工薪阶层贫民窟在工业城市工业革命期间重叠的起源,公共卫生不是一个纯粹的偶然现象。很明显,演化为现代科学流行病学已导致政策和干预,我们现在称之为“卫生”。今天,不仅在工业化国家也在发展中国家,它正变得越来越难以定性传统社会阶级作为一个“公共”。通常情况下,当这样的一个“公共”是确认,它更多样和瞬态,例如难民营中的数量。因此,人不能预见其形成,也不能干预是制定和实施的时候。矛盾的是,同时传统遍布全球,全球化是公众造成化方面的世界上的重要信息。旅行和迁徙的人类活动和运输商品以

51、及信息传输中已经介绍了常见的元素融入天南地北的文化和社会。我们并不惊讶地注意,比如,某些品牌的“快餐”分布世界各地。到目前为止,所见到的概念在传统意义上是公众为新兴的明确的共同特征和持有较少比旧的。随着这个词,这个词的“公众的健康”也改变了它的意义。众所周知,健康科学,总的来说,两个主要分支。一个聚焦于促进健康和预防疾病,另一个是集中在医疗和实践康复疾病。虽然健康科学将其早期疗效方面,强调它迅速扩大其领域预防性的一面,尤其是健康水平的提高。新兴的传染病,比如 、HIV / AIDS,b型,因为我们有什么有效的治疗手段,到目前为止,需要预防方法。增加卫生保健费用的负担,在许多国家引导我们转向更具

52、成本效益的预防方法。预防性健康照护的目标通常是公开,因为它的方法论是基于不同个体的有效性。它是救助性措施处理有病。换句话说,任何公共健康导向方法应该在其范围内的公共为对象,要么面临着同样的病理或遵守同样的健康风险。他们的生活方式,固有的生活条件,或其他常见的因素。当我们看着现在的世界形势,最显著的事实是,在健康状态之间的差距,最不发达国家和发达国家在过去的十年中正在逐渐加大。例如,婴儿死亡率的范围很广,从5-160现在。正是在这样的背景下,WHO的直接领导，内阁总干事,他们在1995年获得医疗,包括最贫穷、最脆弱的国家与大众,仍然是谁的指导的目的和它的合作计划的国家。如果这一空缺都要通过我们的

53、共同努力弥合,公平和团结的核心概念是实现目标的的健康的人口面临各种不同的社会和经济问题。食品安全,是一种健康的预防方法,不能脱离以上关于自然改变趋势和公众的差距越来越健康人群。为了防止不仅是一个范围的食源性疾病也是造成营养不良。感染性腹泻、广泛的生物医学分析和经济评估的目标人口将需要发展一个食物安全计划。在解决这一重大问题,确定公共卫生是谁的促进和保护健康的四个相关政策取向第九总体方案的工作期间,覆盖19962001这项计划旨在调动一切资源相关健康促进和保护,包括就业、教育、住房、城市规划、价格管制、农业政策、融资和经济政策和法律、法规,以便为所有人群营养状况的不断提高,使他们能全面普及安全、

54、健康、环境和生活条件,所有的人都接受并维持健康的生活方式和行为规范。模块化的公共健康和它在政府系统的位置公共卫生作为一个完整的问题集(有科学和措施旨在保护和促进公众健康的现实社会,实现通过两个主要结构。第一个是所谓功能,即基本机制基础设施的需要进行评估的人口,将必要的措施到位。他们包括规范设置和管理机构、国家和当地卫生机构、诊疗所、医院和其它服务设施、人力发展课程,信息系统,大众传媒和科研机构和实验室,仅列举几项。 第二部分可以被看作是一种软件设计的硬件上运行上面提到的。每一个软件与一个特定的阿公共卫生项目,如母婴健康,非传染性疾病控制、和食品安全。它应该牢记,前构件的发展是他必要的干燥处理的

55、实施后者,把他的帽子相当大的互动,硬件和软件的软件程序在不同服务传递系统。一个简单的例子足以。如果一个重要的组成部分,比如一个信息系统基础设施缺乏,这样,整个系统障碍,初级卫生保健工作。反之,一旦一个特定的零件的基础设施是放,它可以促进每一个公共卫生计画。这甚至可能刺激不同的节目之间的竞争特权使用这样的资源。不过。互动不一定是消极的一面。保持积极的情感互动也期望及公共卫生经理应该应。例如,家庭教育，安全准备食物是所有脱机更有效率和有效实施时相同的公共卫生护士谁访问了家庭和检查幼儿的生长和发育。最主要的一点是,每个节目前应最大限度地受益于公共卫生互动。此外,不同区域和基础设施项目必须协调元素在家

56、庭、社区、地区和更高的水平。合作与协调相邻模块/水平是不可缺少的初级卫生保健系统全面、高效、持续。国际研讨会,营养间举行的1992年12月在罗马,采用世界宣言和行动计划,并且认识到这一点:获取营养充足,营养食品安全是一个正确的每一个体。世界卫生组织,这就产生了一个优先营养区,还协助政府实施建议,通过心肌间质胶原网络结构的出版的指引文件及其评价的国家计划行动。联合国环境与发展会议(UNCED),发生在 1992年6月在里约热内卢的需要,也被称为晋升和保护健康通过预防传染性疾病和管理有害的化学物质。在联合国环境项目和世界食品和农业组织,已经监测环境污染水平在食品中重金属、农药和其他污染物。谁也负责

57、科学评价的化学构成风险对于人类健康,不仅在食物,但在其他的暴露途径。食品安全可以被定义为“所有必要条件和措施,在生产、加工、仓储、配送、准备的食物,以确保摄入体内后,它不呈现健康风险”。从这个意义上说,食品安全的确是一个公共卫生部门值得更高优先级的在任何公共卫生计划。这一事实是一种常见的关注食品安全的政府、工业和消费者要求 指向的沿食品质量保证过程链。在此背景下,卫生部门应当承担起为规范的领导地位的设置。这意味着健康部门预计将参与各个阶段的食物链中,全国以及世界。谁的推动作用,并对保护健康的人是基于公共卫生的原则。技术合作与个人政府和细心的国际标准的柱子中间谁的健康的策略。正是这样的食品安全。

58、所有的部门,国内或国际市场,需要与对方。他们应该分担全面负责食品安全的一部分的公共卫生项目一样。参考文献Abdussalam、陈俊颖、Kiiferstein,F.K.(1994)在初级卫生保健食品安全,世界卫生393-399论坛15日艾伦,R.J.L.和Klferstein,F.K.(1983)食源性疾病、食品卫生和消费者教育。Archiv皮毛Lehensmittelhygiene 81-108 34岁无名:保护消费者通过改善食品质量与安全、主题纸2号,主要问题为营养Sfrategies学术研讨会最后文件。营养FAO / WHO标准联合项目,食品法典委员会(1992)编码的国际贸易Efhics

59、食品关贸总协定(1994)认识世界贸易组织协议在卫生与植物卫生措施摩伊村、林志栋、KPferstein,F.K.和Motarjemi,Y。(1994)应用HACCP食品制造、食品控制5(3),131-139(1995)应用风险分析io食品标准问题,联合国粮农组织的联合报告/ WHO专家咨询、WHO/ FNU / FOS 95.3WHO:指南或Sfrengthening发展国家食品安全计划反应的声明和行动计划”国际研讨会Nufrition(草案),94.6(下FNU / FOS考查)WHO(1984)的角色在人类食品安全与发展,报告/谁联合联合国粮农组织专家委员会,对食品安全、技术报告系列705号吗WHO(1992)的健康影响的生物污染和化学物质,在食品、第九章的小组报告的粮食和农业 专业英语论文院系：化工学院 指导老师：黄猛 班级：2008级食品科学与工程 姓名：任 莉 学号：2008651010