5.语篇衔接手段

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1、英汉语篇衔接手段比较referencesubstitutionHalliday &Hasan ellipsisCohesion In English conjunctionlexical cohesionphoricity从语用功能的角度照应分为两种：外指(exophora)和内指(endophora)。外指照应指的是语篇中某个成分的参照点不在语篇本身内部，而是存在于语境中。内指照应指的是语言成分的参照点存在于语篇上下文中。Halliday and Hasan(1976：33)指出，无论是外指照应还是内指照应，其所指对象必须是可以识别的。照 应 的 衔 接例l “I can lick you!

2、” “Id like to see you try it” “Well, I can do it.” “No，you cant, either.” (Mark Twain, The Adventures Of Tom Sawyer)例2 “整整三十万！ 再多，我们不干；再少，他们也不干。” (茅盾：子夜)英汉照应对比与翻译I. Personal reference人称照应II. Demonstrative reference指示照应III. Comparison reference 比较照应I. Personal referenceendophoric(anaphora, cataphora)

3、 and exophoric英语和汉语有各自的人称照应系，二者主要差异表现在以下几个方面：1)英汉人称代词在表达和形态上不同。2)汉语中没有反身代词。3)汉语中没有关系代词。例3 I began to wonder what God thought about Westley，who certainly hadnt seen Jesus either，but who was now sitting proudly on the platform, (Langston Hughes：Salvation)译文：我开始纳闷，上帝究竟对弗斯特利怎么想呢? 他根本没看见耶酥，可他却洋洋得意地坐在教坛上。

4、(刘士聪译拯救)4) 英语中的人称照应在汉语语篇中常表现为词汇衔接.例4 My uncle made a great effort to control himself “He was the only brother that I ever had,”he added, but with no heart in his voiceThen he picked up his spoon and started eating again, but he was still shaking (Kidnapped，P.44)译文：我伯伯费了很大的劲才控制住(他)自己。“他是我生来唯一的弟弟，”他又说

5、。但是(他的)语调中却没有一点儿(他的)感情。接着，他拿起(他的)勺子继续吃，仍旧在发抖。(二)指示照应(Demonstrative reference)指示照应指说话人通过指明事物在时间和空间上的远近(proximity)来确定所指对象。在英语中主要由指示代词、指示性副词、冠词以及相应的限定词如：this和that，here和there，now和then以及the等来体现。这些词语都含有时空概念。但其所指的时空上的远近却是以会话参与者所在时间和空间的位置作为参照点的。汉语语篇中的指示照应主要由“这”和“那”以及其派生的词语(如：这时那时，这里那里等)来体现的，这些词可以指时间和空间，以会话参

6、与者所在的位置和时间作为参照点。“这”指近，“那”指远。在这一点上。英汉指示照应并没有什么差异。英汉语篇在指示照应方面的差异主要体现在指示词在指称功能上的不同。由于汉语中的指示词主要由“这”和“那”构成，所以我们下面对“这那”与英语“thisthat”在指称功能上的差异作一分析对比。 在用于外指照应时，thisthat与“这那”，在其所指的时空概念上并无多大差异，但用于内照应时，两者所表现出的情况则较为复杂。1)在汉语语篇中，“这”和“那”在表达时空距离时往往受会话参与者心理活动或视觉的影响，所以有时并不是对事物的客观描述。而英语中thisthat表达的时空概念较接近实际的远近距离。2)当发话

7、者指称上文的陈述时，汉语一般用“这”，而英语一般用“that。如：例5 No，whatever it might once have been，she could not believe it such at presentHis affection was all her own. She could not be deceived in that. (Jane Austen，Sense and Sensibility)译文：不，无论情况曾经是怎样的，埃莉诺也不能相信现在是这样。爱德华的爱情都是属于她自己的。在这一点上，她不会受欺骗。 (吴力励译理智与情感)3) 英语中，“这”大部分为下指，

8、“那”主要用作回指指称。如：例6 But what most troubled me was this: he would neither take his eyes off me nor look me straight in the face. (Kidnapped，P24)译文：不过最令我不安的是这个：他老盯住我，却从不用正眼看我。例7 The darkness，after the flash，seemed even darker. And that was not all: I had disturbed a mass of bats in the top part of the to

9、wer, and the horrible creatures flew down and beat against my face and body. (Kidnapped，P5253)译文：黑洞洞的四周，在闪电之后，显得更黑了。不光是那样黑了；我还惊动了那塔楼顶部大群的蝙蝠，这些可怕的动物冲我的脸部和身子。 (三) 比较照应(Comparison reference) 比较照应指通过形容词和副词的比较等级形式以及其它一些有比较意义的词语表示的照应关系。下面我们将按照分类对英汉比较照应进行分析对比。1)在表达一般比较时，英语常用same, so, equal, such, similar(1

10、y), different(1y), identical(ly), other, otherwise等词语；汉语常用的词语有：同样(的)、相同(的)、同等(的)、类似的、其他/它的、不同(的)、别的，等等。2)在表达特殊比较时，英语主要借助于形容词或副词的比较级形式。而汉语的形容词、副词没有比较级形式，只能通过词汇(如：更、更加、再、比较、这么、等等)或语法手段来表达。这正是英汉两种语言在比较照应上的最大差异。如：例8 那蹲着的黑影一面抱怨着天气：“真冷呀，先生，你说是不是?”看见他并不是个讨厌的老头子，便也高兴地说道：“乡下怕更要冷些吧?” (艾芜：冬夜)“Its really cold h

11、ere.” he complained. “what do you think, sir?” Seeing that he was not too nasty an old man, I readily responded: “It must be colder in the country, Im afraid” (刘士聪译Winter Night) 其它三种语法衔接手段 替代(substitution)指的是用替代形式(pro-form)去替代上下文所出现的词语。主要有名词性替代(nominal substitution);动词性替代(verbal substitution)；分句性替代(

12、clausal substitution). 省略(ellipsis) 省略可看作是一种特殊的替代零替代(substitution by zero)。省略也可分为三类：名词性省略(nominal ellipsis)；动词性省略(verbal ellipsis)；分句性省略 (clausal ellipsis)。Why so often the coarse appropriates the fine thus, the wrong man the woman, the wrong woman the man?为什么常常是粗野的占有了精致的？为什么男人能占有他不应占有的女人，女人能占有她不应占有

13、的男人？Histories make man wise, poems witty, mathematics subtle, natural philosophy deep; morality grave logic and rhetoric able to contend.历史使人聪明;诗歌使人灵巧;数学使人精细;自然哲学使人深沉;伦理使人庄重; 逻辑和修辞使人善辩。 连接(conjunction)是通过连接性词语的使用，使人们了解句子之间的语义联系，甚至经前句从逻辑上预见后续句的语义。Halliday认为，连接表达了加合、转折、因果和时间等四种关系。如：我小时候住在农村，终日与狗为伍，一点叶

14、没有感觉到狗这种东西又什么希奇的地方。但是狗却给我留下了极其深刻的印象。When I lived in the countryside as a small child, there were dogs all around, and so I got quite accustomed to them, never thinking of them as anything out of the common. Nevertheless, they have since left a most deep impression on me.词 汇 衔 接词汇衔接手段，可分为复现关系(reitera

15、tion)和同现关系(collocation)。 一、复现关系复现关系(reiteration)是指某一词以原词、同义词、近义词、上下义词概括词的形式出现在语篇中。语篇中的句子通过这种复现关系达到相互衔接联句成篇的效果。1原词重复如：You ask，what is our aim? I can answer in one word. It is victory. Victory at all costsvictory in spite of all terrorsvictory, however long and hard the road may be, for without victor

16、y there is no survival 2同义词近义词复现如：We tend to think of a language as somehow“put together”and that to know something of how it “works”, we have to“take it apart.” Professionals find it useful and convenient to try to understand the nature of language by unraveling it, dissembling it. We break languag

17、e down in order to build it up, and we call the resultant debris“building blocks”再如：The man whowill not suffer from the fear of death, since the things he cares for will continue. And if, with the decay of vitality, weariness increases, the thought of rest will be not unwelcome. I should wish to die

18、 while still at work, knowing that others will carry on what I can no longer do3上下义词复现上下义关系的主要意义为“内包”，即意义概括的词内包意义更为确定的词。前者为“上坐标词”（superordinate)，后者为下义词(hyponym)，两个下义词之间为“共下义词”(cohyponym)的关系。德国学者Trier提出了语言词汇结构的语义场(semantic field)理论。根据这一理论，这种语义类属关系使一些具有上下义词汇项在一个共同概念的支配下结合在一起，互为依存(interdependent)，出现在同一

19、语篇中形成连贯衔接。如： What can I do with these plates? Leave the china there, and come with us文中的china为plates的上义词，两者构成衔接关系，把两句紧密连接起来。再如：Children always appreciate small gifts of money. Father, of course, provides a regular supply of pocket-money, but uncles and aunts are always a source of extra income.4概括词复

20、现如：Mabel told me with evident pride that she passed the exam again. The happy event will take place in August again 二、同现关系(collocation)同现关系指词汇在语篇中共同出现的倾向性(co-occurrence tendency)。Halliday指出，“篇章不是杂乱无章地从一个话题跳到另一个话题，而总是以一定的话题连贯性和话题展开的可测性合理地展开发展，大多数话题都是组织得很好的，由此而来的必然结果便是词项按一定的格局出现”。他认为可以根据某些词汇由于语义上的时常共现

21、，把词汇分成词汇链(1exical chain)，同一词汇链中词汇语义均从同一语义中心辐射出去，在语义上相互联系，起到语篇衔接的作用。词汇的同现关系包括反义关系、互补关系、局部 整体关系和搭配关系。1反义关系(antonymy)反义关系指词项之间意义相反相对或相矛盾关系，表示不同程度性质的词。具体来说，指语义可分等的有程度差别的词类关系，两极之间体现对立的层次性。词汇之间的反义关系能促进语篇的衔接，达到语义贯通的目的。如：United, we stand；divided, we fall 2互补关系(complementarity)互补只有两个对立项组成，就是非彼即此或非此即彼，因而对一个词项

22、的否定就意味着对另一词项的肯定，双方形成对立统一体。互补词与反义词有明显的区别，反义词的两极之间可插进表示不同程度性质的词语，体现层次可分性(gradability)；互补词在意义上是互相排斥的，一方的存在以另一方的存在为前提，singlemarried，deadalive即属此类。如：Why does this little boy always wriggle?Girls never-wriggle.3局部 整体关系上下义关系区别的是命名上的内涵，而局部整体关系区别的是实体的“内包”。局部整体关系语义场可细分为两大类：一类是有序类，在这类语义场中，词义之间有一种顺序关系；另一类是无序类，这

23、类语义场中各词义之间无需按一定的顺序排列。如： More than 2000 patients are dying annually while waiting for transplants，mostly patients waiting for hearts, kidney and livers One approach, involves “cold organ preservation”inside the bodies of people who die in hospital emergency room 4组合搭配搭配首先由英国语言学家，“伦敦学派”创始人Firth提出。他认为这

24、种搭配关系在决定一个词的词义时起举足轻重的作用。他有句名言为人熟知：“通过与其结伴的词，你可以认识一个词(you shall know word by the company it keeps)”。Firth还指出。两个词项间的搭配关系是一种互相预示自己“搭档”可能出现的结构。Halliday指出：“In General, any two lexical items having similar patterns of collocationthat is, tending to appear in similar contextsw ill generate a cohesive force

25、 if they occur in an adjacent sentences.”胡壮麟认为，collocation应理解为组合搭配。主要指那些倾向于出现在同一语境中具有语篇衔接力，但是难以一起分类的词汇。如：the very sky seems to proclaim in the New Years approachIntermittent flashes from pallid，lowering evening clouds are following by the rumble of crackers bidding farewell to the Hearth God and, be

26、fore the deafening reports of bigger bangs close at hand have died away，the air is filled with whiffs of gunpowder再如：Fred, the hungry alligatorbar attraction of the Mill Hotel, Alveley, Salopis dead, having bitten in half the electric heater which warmed his his six-foot tank. Hotel owner Mrs June H

27、odson said; “Its quite unheard of. Now well have to get another baby alligator; Fred was good for business. Were going to have him stuffed so he is in the deep freeze at the moment.” 在这个语篇中，我们可以发现几条搭配链：A: alligator, hungry, biteB: alligator, dead, stuffedC: alligator, tank, electric heater, warmedD:

28、 hotel, bar, business, owner 语篇分析的实例（口头语篇，Ellen 陪着Marie在商店里挑选衣服时与服务员的对话。) Ellen：Excuse me. Could you help me? Id like to exchange this sweater.（1_） Clerk：Whats the problem with it?（2_） Ellen：It was a birthday gift, but I dont really like it（3_ ） I think I want something plainer.（4_） Clerk：I seewell，

29、why dont you look around?(5_) Marie：I like these two.(6_,_) Ellen, try them on.(7_). Ellen：Ok. So which one do you like?(8_，_) Marie：I like the red one much better than the black one.（9_） Ellen：Really? How come? I kind of like the black one. (10_） Marie: The red one is longer and a little looser so

30、it will bemore comfortable. (11_，_，_) Ellen：Trueand it feels softer. (12_，_) Clerk：And the color looks better on you.（13_，_)Actually, its a better quality and its the same price as the sweater youre exchanging(14_、_) Ellen：Youve talked me into it!(15_) I11 take this one instead(16_ ) Clerk：No problemI11 switch them for you，（17_）6