戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记_自己整理版

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1、实用标准文案Chapter 1IntroductionWhat is linguistics?什么是语言学A The definition of linguisticsLinguisticsis generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究 )Process of linguistic study: Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; Hypotheses are formulated; Hypotheses ar

2、e tested by further observations; A linguistic theory is constructed.B The scope oflinguistics Generallinguistics普通语言学 : thestudy of language as a whole从整体研究1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study ofthe phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are pr

3、oduced and classified)2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speechsounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3.Morphology : the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (howmorphemes are combined to form wor

4、ds)4.Syntax : the study of those rulesthat govern the combinationof words to form permissiblesentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5.Semantics : the study of meaning in abstraction6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language

5、with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; ma

6、thematical linguistics; computational linguistics精彩文档实用标准文案C Some important distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs. Descriptive规定性与描写性 Synchronic vs. Diachronic共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）The description of a language at somepointin time;The description of a language as it changesthrough time. Speech an

7、d writing言语与文字Spoken language is primary, not the written Langue and parole语言和言语Proposed by Swiss linguistsF. de Sausse(sociological)Langue: refersto the abstractlinguisticsystem shared by allthe membersof a speech community（指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统）Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual us

8、e（指语言在实际运用中的实现） Competence and performance语言能力与语言运用Proposed by the American linguistN. Chomsky (psychological)Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication. （这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现）W

9、hat is language?什么是语言A The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。)a) System: combined together according to rules（根据规则组合在一起）b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol st

10、andsfor （语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages（所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d) Human: language is human-specific（语言是人类所独有的）BDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language thatdistinguish it from any animal system of communication（识别特征 是指人类

11、语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征）Arbitrariness（任意性）There isno logicalor naturalconnectionbetween a linguisticform (eithersound or word)and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities:onomatopoeic w

12、ords（拟声词）b) some compound words （某些复合词）Productivity （能产性，创造性）精彩文档/ 基本层面存在着语音结构，其实用标准文案Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness) Duality （双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers

13、simultaneously. The lower or basic levelis a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (doublearticulation)（语言是一个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/ 语言的双层性） Displacement （跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate s

14、ituations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity forlanguage has agenetic basis (everyone was born with theabilityto acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have

15、to be taught and learnt.The above 5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language.Chapter 2Phonology音位学A The definition of phonetics（语音学）Phonetics : the study of the phonic mediumof language:itisconcerned with allthe soundsthat occur in the world s languages. （是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世

16、界中的所有语音）Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.（发音语音学）Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.（听觉语音学）Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds. （声学语音学）B Orga

17、ns of speech（发音器官）Voiceless: 清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced (Voicing): 浊音 when the vocal cords 声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the Eng

18、lish vowels元音 are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavity咽腔The oral cavity口腔The nasal cavity鼻腔其他部位： Lips 唇 1, teeth齿 2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈 3, hard palate硬腭 4, soft palate(velum) 软腭 5, uvula小舌 6, tip of tongue舌尖 7, blade of tongue舌面 8, back of tongue舌后9, vocal co

19、rds声带 10C Orthographic representation of speech sounds： Broad and narrow transcriptions（语音的正字法表征：宽式/ 窄式标音）IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association国际语音协会 / 国际音标 )Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only（代表字母的符号）精彩文档实用标准文案Narrow transcription:the transcriptionwith letter

20、-symbolstogetherwith the diacritics（变音符）E.g.:lli:f-a clear l (no diacritic)l bild-a dark l ()l help-a dental l ( )ppit-an aspirated ph( h 表示送气 )p spit-an unaspirated p (no diacritic)n 5bQtna syllabic nasal n (7)D Classification of English consonants（英语辅音的分类）In terms of manner of articulation根据发音方法分(

21、the manner in which obstruction iscreated) Stops 闭塞音 : the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly p/b, t/d, k/gFricatives 摩擦音 : the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the monthf/v, s/z, /, /, h (approximant) Affricates 塞擦音 : the obstruction,

22、complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives t /d Liquids流音 : the airflowisobstructedbut isallowed to escape through the passage betweenpart or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouthla lateral sound; rretroflex Glides 滑音 : w, j (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + happroximantsNasals 鼻音 :

23、 the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through itm, n, By place of articulation根据发音部位分(the place where obstruction is created) bilabial 双唇音 : upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions p/b,w (velar) labiodentals 唇齿音 : the lower lip and the uppe

24、r teeth f/vdental齿音 : the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth /alveolar齿龈音 : the frontpartof the tongueon the alveolarridge t/d, s/z,n,l, rpalatal腭音 : tongue in the middle of the palate / , t/d, jvelars软腭因 : the back of the tongue against the velum k, g, glottal 喉音 : the glottal is the space

25、 between the vocal cords in the larynx hE Classification of English vowels（英语元音的分类）精彩文档实用标准文案 The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back; The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vowels are unrou

26、nded vowels except BAll the back vowels, except A: are rounded vowels The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowelsLarynx(tense) or (lax)Monophthongs, diphthongsCardinal vowelsF The definition of phonology（音位学）Phoneticsis interested inall thespeech sounds used inall humanlanguages; how they ar

27、eproduced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they canbe classified, etc.Phonology , on theotherhand,isinterestedin thesystem ofsounds ofa particularlanguages;it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds areused to conv

28、ey meaning in linguistic communication.G Phone, phoneme, and allophone（音素、音位、音位变体）Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment（因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）: a phonemeisa phonologicalunit;it isa unit of distinctivevalue, it isan abstractPhonemeunit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophone: the different pho

29、nes which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体）H Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体）Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two wo

30、rds and theydistinguish meaning, theyre in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin/p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe/p/ vs. /b/（要会判断！）Complementarydistribution: two ormore than two allophonesof the same phonemesaresaidto be incomplementary distributionbecause they can notappear at the same time, or occurin different

31、environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.精彩文档实用标准文案Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one soundsegment which occurs in the sameplace in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each

32、one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.I Some rules in phonology sequential rules序列规则Phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring in onset:如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则：No1:_/s/第一个音位一定是 /s/_voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/第二个音位

33、一定是 /p/, /t/, /k/_approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/第三个音位一定是 /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2:The affricates t ,d and the sibilants s,z, are not to be followed byanother sibilants. assimilation rules同化规则Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-arti

34、culation.Assimilation & elision effects元音省略Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.鼻音化现象 deletion rule/Elision省略规则Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be p

35、resent in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolationE.g. delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonant省略词末鼻辅音前的 g音J Suprasegmental features（超音段特征） Stress重音Word stress & sentence stressThe stress of the English compounds always on the first element Tone 声调Tones are pitch variations, w

36、hich are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.像音素一样可以区别意义Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调Level, rise, fall-rise, fall阴平 阳平 上声 去声 Intonation语调When pitch, stress and sound length are ti

37、ed to the sentence rather than the word inisolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones四种语调精彩文档实用标准文案The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone降调 声调 将声调 升降调Chapter 3Morphology形态学A The definitio

38、n of morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and therules by which words are formed.（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究）Morpheme: 词素 the most basic element of meaning.（意义的最基本要素）(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function最小的意义单位或者语法功能)B Free morphemes & bound m

39、orphemes （自由词素和黏着词素） Free morphemes : can stand by themselves as single wordsLexical morphemes n.a.v & functional morphemes conj.prep.art.pron.Bound morphemes: can not normallystand alone,but which are typicallyattached to anotherformDerivationalmorphemes派生词素affix词缀 (suffix,infix, prefix)+ root 后缀 中

40、缀 前缀+词根Inflectional morphemes曲折词素8 types of inflectional morphemes in EnglishNoun+ - s, -s possessive所有格 ; plural复数 Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en 3rd person present singular第三人称单数 ; present participle现在分词 ; past tense过去式 , past participle过去分词 Adj + -er, -est comparative比较级 ; superlative最高级 C Derivationa

41、l vs. Inflectional派生（范畴 / 语类）和曲折（语法标志）Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word只表示语法标志（时态、数、格）Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category词的范畴 ;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional词根 / 词干 +派生 +曲折D Morphological Rules形

42、态学规则（词的构成方式词素是怎样组合成为词 ）N. +lya.; A. +lyadv.; guard overgeneralizationE Morphs and allomorphs语素和语素变体Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemesAllomorphs : a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme,a morpheme mayhave alternate shapes or phonetic forms.e.g.map-maps sdog-dogs zw

43、atch-watchesizmouse-mice aiox-oxen ntooth-teethsheep-sheep精彩文档实用标准文案Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.F Word-formation process（构词法） Coinagethe invention of totally new terms（创造全新的词） Borrowingthe taking over of words form other languages Compoundinga joining of two

44、 separate words to produce a single form（组成复合词） Blendingtaking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word Clippinga word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form Back formationa process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of anexisting word

45、Conversioncategory change, functional shift Acronymsnew words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words Derivationthe new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, orwords（添加词缀） Abbreviationa shortenedform of a word or phrase which representsthe complete form

46、 （缩短原词）Chapter 4Syntax句法学A The definition of syntaxSyntax : A branch of linguisticsthat studieshow words are combined to form sentences and rulesthat govern the formation of sentences（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）C Types of sentencesSimple sentence 简单句 : consistsof a singleclause which contain

47、sa subjectand a predicateand stands alone as its own sentence.Coordinate (Compound) sentence并列（复合）句 : contains two clauses joined by a linkingword called coordinating conjunctions, such as“ and”,“ by”,“ or ” Complex sentence 复杂句 : contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the

48、 otherEmbedded clause 子句matrix clause主句 subordinatorfunctions as a grammatical unit may be completeBSome categories（范畴）Syntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammaticalfunction, such as the subject or the predicate句法范畴Lexical categories: (parts of speech)词汇范畴Ma

49、jor lexical categories (open categories):N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories):Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int.Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP短语范畴CCombinational rulesAre small in numberYield all the possible sentencesRule out the impossible ones phrase structure rules (rewri

50、te rules)（短语结构规则）精彩文档实用标准文案SNP VP(A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP(det.限定词 ) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)“”：包括 / 分为VP(qual.修饰词 )V (NP) (POP) (S)“ ( ) ”：内部的成分可以省略AP(deg. 程度词 )A (PP) (S)“ ”：可以选择附加其他补语PP (deg.)P NPX- bar theoryHeadan obligatory word that givers the ph

51、rase its nameXP or X-phraseXP(Specifier) X (complement)Formula:X”Spec X X-bar theory (X-bar schema)XX complDTransformational rules转换规则D-structure and S-structure深层结构和表层结构Deep structure: the structure that corresponds most closely to the meaningful groupingof words. It is abstract, which gives the me

52、aning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable.Surface structure: linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surfacestructure is relatively concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used incommunication.Two levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:On

53、e that exists before movement takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structu

54、re levelTransformational-generative line of analysisESyntactic RelationsSequential(syntagmatic) relations组合关系The linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentenceSubstitutional(paradigmatic) relations (聚合关系 )If the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outs

55、idethe sentence and the resultingsentence isstillgrammatical, then we say the replacingformsand replaced forms have paradigmatic relations.F Immediate Constituent Analysis（IC Analysis）IC Analysis is tosimplydividea sentence into itsconstituent elements without at firstknowingwhat these elements are.

56、The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemes精彩文档实用标准文案Labeled IC analysissyntactic categories criteria in judging syntactic categories:1) morphological features(inflectional and derivational affixes they take) (number,case gender etc.)2) syntactic contexts in which the linguistic forms can occurCategorythedeterminer (Det.)boynoun (n.)oftenqualifierplaysverb (v.)aDet.verydegree word (Deg)smallmodifierballn.must, shouldauxiliary (Aux.)and, bu