2.3万吨再生铅冶炼技术改造项目可行性报告

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1、Lesson 1 A private conversation 私人谈话Last week I went to the theatre. I had a very good seat. The play was very interesting. I did not enjoy it. A young man and a young woman were sitting behind me. They were talking loudly. I got very angry. I could not hear the actors. I turned round. I looked at t

2、he man and the woman angrily. They did not pay any attention. In the end, I could not bear it. I turned round again. I cant hear a word! I said angrily. Its none of your business, the young man said rudely. This is a private conversation!.Lesson 2 Breakfast or lunch? 早餐还是午餐？It was Sunday. I never ge

3、t up early on Sundays. I sometimes stay in bed until lunch time.Last Sunday I got up very late. I looked out of the window. It was dark outside. What a day! I thought. Its raining again. Just then, the telephone rang. It was my aunt Lucy. Ive just arrived by train, she said. Im coming to see you. Bu

4、t Im still having breakfast, I said.What are you doing ? she asked. Im having breakfast, I repeated.Dear me, she said. Do you always get up so late ? Its one oclock!Lesson 3 Please send me a card 请给我寄一张明信片 Postcards always spoil my holidays. Last summer, I went to Italy. I visited museums and sat in

5、 public gardens. A friendly waiter taught me a few words of Italian. Then he lent me a book. I read a few lines, but I did not understand a word. Every day I thought about postcards. My holidays passed quickly, but I did not send any cards to my friends. On the last day I made a big decision. I got

6、up early and bought thirty-seven cards. I spent the whole day in my room, but I did not write a single card !Lesson 4 An exciting trip 激动人心的旅行I have just received a letter from my brother, Tim. He is in Australia. He has been there for six months. Tim is an engineer. He is working for a big firm and

7、 he has already visited a great number of different places in Australia. He has just bought an Australian car and has gone to Alice Springs, a small town in the centre of Australia. He will soon visit Darwin. From there, he will fly to Perth. My brother has never been abroad before, so he is finding

8、 this trip very exciting.Lesson 5 No wrong numbers 无错号之虞 Mr James Scott has a garage in Silbury and now he has just bought another garage in Pinhurst. Pinhurst is only five miles from Silbury, but Mr Scott cannot get a telephone for his new garage, so he has just bought twelve pigeons. Yesterday, a

9、pigeon carried the first message from Pinhurst to Silbury. The bird covered the distance in three minutes. Up to now, Mr Scott has sent a great many requests for spare parts and other urgent messages from one garage to the other. In this way, he has begun his own private telephone service.Lesson 6 P

10、ercy Buttons 珀西巴顿斯I have just moved to a house in Bridge Street. Yesterday a beggar knocked at my door. He asked me for a meal and a glass of beer. In return for this, the beggar stood on his head and sang songs. I gave him a meal. He ate the food and drank the beer. Then he put a piece of cheese in

11、 his pocket and went away. Later a neighbour told me about him. Everybody knows him. His name is Percy Buttons. He calls at every house in the street once a month and always asks for a meal and a glass of beer.Lesson 7 Too late 为时太晚 The plane was late and detectives were waiting at the airport all m

12、orning. They were expecting a valuable parcel of diamond from South Africa. A few hours earlier, someone had told the police that thieves would try to steal the diamonds. When the plane arrived, some of the detectives were waiting inside the main building while others were waiting on the airfield. T

13、wo men took the parcel off the plane and carried it into the Customs House. While two detectives were keeping guard at the door, two others opened the parcel. To their surprise, the precious parcel was full of stones and sand!Lesson 8 The best and the worst 最好的和最差的Joe Sanders has the most beautiful

14、garden in our town. Nearly everybody enters for The Nicest Garden Competition each year, but Joe wins every time. Bill Friths garden is larger than Joes. Bill works harder than Joe and grows more flowers and vegetables, but Joes garden is more interesting. He has made neat paths and has built a wood

15、en bridge over a pool. I like gardens too, but I do not like hard work. Every year I enter for the garden competition too, and I always win a little prize for the worst garden in the town!Lesson 9 A cold welcome 冷遇On Wednesday evening, we went to the Town Hall. It was the last day of the year and a

16、large crowd of people had gathered under the Town Hall clock. It would strike twelve in twenty minutes time. Fifteen minutes passed and then, at five to twelve, the clock stopped. The big minute hand did not move. We waited and waited, but nothing happened. Suddenly someone shouted, Its two minutes

17、past twelve! The clock has stopped! I looked at my watch. It was true. The big clock refused to welcome the New Year. At that moment everybody began to laugh and sing.Lesson 10 Not for jazz 不适于演奏爵士乐We have an old musical instrument. It is called a clavichord(翼琴). It was made in Germany in 1681. Our

18、clavichord is kept in the living-room. It has belong to our family for a long time. The instrument was bought by my grandfather many years ago. Recently it was damaged by a visitor. She tried to play jazz on it! She struck the keys too hard and two of the strings were broken. My father was shocked.

19、Now we are not allowed to touch it. It is being repaired by a friend of my fathers.Lesson 11 One good turn deserves another 礼尚往来I was having dinner at a restaurant when Harry Steele came in. Harry worked in a lawyers office years ago, but he is now working at a bank. He gets a good salary, but he al

20、ways borrows money from his friends and never pays it back. Harry saw me and came and sat at the same table. He has never borrowed money from me. While he was eating, I asked him to lend me &2. To my surprise, he gave me the money immediately. I have never borrowed any money from you, Harry said, so

21、 now you can pay for my dinner!Lesson 12 Goodbye and good luck 再见，一路顺风Our ncighbour, Captain Charles Alison, will sail from Portsmouth tomorrow. We shall meet him at the harbour early in the morning. He will be in his small boat, Topsail.Tapsail is a famous little boat. It has sailed across the Atla

22、ntic many times. Captain Alison will set out at eight oclock so we shall have plenty of time. We shall see his boat and then we shall say good-bye to him. He will be away for two months. We are very proud of him. He will take part in an important race across the Atlantic.Lesson 13 The Greenwood Boys

23、 绿林少年The Greenwood Boys are a group of popular singers. At present, they are visiting all parts of the country. They will be arriving here tomorrow. They will be coming by train and most of the youngpeople in the town will be meeting them at the station. Tomorrow evening they will be singing at the

24、Workers Club. The Greenwood Boys will be staying for five days. During this time, they will give five performances. As usual, the police will have a difficult time. They will be trying to keep order. It is always the same on these occasions.Lesson 14 Do you speak English? 你会讲英语吗？I had an amusing exp

25、erience last year. After I had left a small village in the south of France, I drove on to the next town. On the way, a young man waved to me. I stopped and he asked me for a lift. As soon as he had got into the car, I said good morning to him in French and he replied in the same language. Apart from

26、 a few words, I do not know any French at all. Neither of us spoke during the journey. I had nearly reached the town, when the young man suddenly said, very slowly, Do you speak English? As I soon learnt, he was English himself!Lesson 15 Good news 佳音 The secretary told me that Mr. Harmsworth would s

27、ee me. I felt very nervous when. I went into his office. He did not look up from his desk when I entered. After I had sat down, he said that business was very bad. He told me that the firm could not afford to pay such large salaries. Twenty people had already left. I knew that my turn had come. Mr.

28、Harmsworth, I said in a weak voice. Dont interrupt, he Said. Then he smiled and told me I would receive an extra &100 a year!Lesson 16 A polite request 彬彬有礼的要求If you park your car in the wrong place, a traffic policeman will soon find it. You will be very lucky if he lets you go without a ticket. Ho

29、wever, this does not always happen. Traffic police are sometimes very polite. During a holiday in Sweden, I found this note on my car: Sir, we welcome you to our city. This is a No Parking area. You will enjoy your stay here if you pay attention to our street signs. This note is only a reminder. If

30、you receive a request like this, you cannot fail to obey it!Lesson 17 Always young 青年常驻My aunt Jennifer is an actress. She must be at least thirty-five years old. In spite of this, she often appears on the stage as a young girl. Jennifer will have to take part in a new play soon. This time, she will

31、 be a girl of seventeen. In the play, she must appear in a bright red dress and long black stockings. Last year in another play, she had to wear short socks and a bright, orange-coloured dress. If anyone ever asked her how old she is, she always answers, My dear, it must be terrible to be grown up!l

32、esson18 He often does this! 他经常干这种事！After I had had lunch at a village inn, I looked for my bag. I had left it on a chair beside the door and now it wasnt there ! As I was looking for it, the inn-keeper came in. Did you have a good meal ? he asked. Yes, thank you, I answered, but I cant pay the bill

33、. I havent got my bag. The inn-keeper smiled and immediately went out. In a few minutes he returned with my bag and gave it back to me. Im very sorry, he said My dog had taken it into the garden. He often does this.Lesson19 Sold out 票已售完The play may begin at any moment, I said. It may have begun alr

34、eady, Susan answered.I hurried to the ticket-office. May I have two tickets please ? I asked.Im sorry, weve sold out, the girl said.What a pity! Susan exclaimed.Just then, a man hurried to the ticket-office.Can I return these two tickets? he asked.Certainly, the girl said.Could I have those two tick

35、ets please ? I asked.Certainly, the girl said, but they are for next Wednesdays performance.I might as well have them, I said sadly.Lesson20 One man in a boat 独坐孤舟Fishing is my favourite sport. I often fish for hours without catching anything. But this does not worry me. Some fishermen are unlucky.

36、Instead of catching fish, they catch old boots and rubbish. I am even less lucky. I never catch anything-not even old boots. After having spent whole mornings on the river, I always go home with an empty bag. You must give up fishing! my friends say. Its a waste of time. But they dont realize one im

37、portant thing. Im not really interested in fishing. I am only interested in sitting in a boat and doing nothing at all !Lesson21 Mad or not? 是不是疯了？Aeroplanes are slowly driving me mad. I live near an airport and passing planes can be heard night and day. The airport was built during the war, but for

38、 some reason it could not be used then. Last year, however, it came into use. Over a hundred people must have been driven away from their homes by the noise. I am one of the few people left. Sometimes I think this house will be knocked down by a passing plane. I have been offered a large sum of mone

39、y to go away, but I am determined to stay here. Everybody says I must be mad and they are probably right.Lesson22 A glass envelope 玻璃信封My daughter, Jane, never dreamed of receiving a letter from a girl of her own age in Holland. Last year, we were travelling across the Channel and Jane put a piece o

40、f paper with her name and address on it into a bottle. She threw the bottle into the sea. She never thought of it again, but ten months later, she received a letter from a girl in Holland. Both girls write to each other regularly now. However, they have decided to use the post-office. Letters will c

41、ost a litt1e more, but they will certainly travel faster. Lesson23 A new house 新居I had a letter from my sister yesterday. She lives in Nigeria. In her letter, she said that she would come to England next year. If she comes, she will get a surprise. We are now living in a beautiful new house in the c

42、ountry. Work on it had begun before my sister left. The house was completed five months ago. In my letter, I told her that she could stay with us. The house has many large rooms and there is a lovely garden. It is a very modern house, so it looks strange to some people. It must be the only modern ho

43、use in the district.Lesson24 It could be worse 不幸中之万幸I entered the hotel managers office and sat down. I had just lost &50 and I felt very upset. I left the money in my room, I said, and its not there now. The manager was sympathetic, but he could do nothing. Everyones losing money these days, he sa

44、id. He started to complain about this wicked world but was interrupted by a knock at the door. A girl came in and put an envelope on his desk. It contained &5o. I found this outside this gentlemans room she said. Well, I said to the manager, there is still some honesty in this world !lesson25 Do the

45、 English speak English? 英国人讲的是英语吗？I arrived in London at last. The railway station was big, black and dark. I did not know the way to my hotel, so I asked a porter. I not only spoke English very carefully, but very clearly as well. The porter, however, could not understand me; I repeated my question

46、 several times and at last he understood. He answered me, but he spoke neither slowly nor clearly. I am a foreigner, I said. Then he spoke slowly, but I could not understand him. My teacher never spoke English like that! The porter and I looked at each other and smiled. Then he said something and I

47、understood it. Youll soon learn English! he said. I wonder. In England, each man speaks a different language. The English understand each other, but I dont understand them ! Do they speak English ?lesson26 The best art critics 最佳美术评论家I am an art student and I paint a lot of pictures. Many people pre

48、tend that they understand modern art. They always tell you what a picture is about. Of course, many pictures arc not about anything. They are just pretty patterns. We like them in the same way that we like pretty curtain material. I think that young children often appreciate modern pictures better t

49、han anyone else. They notice more. My sister is目 录前 言1第一章 总 论31.1项目概况31.2编制依据及参考文件51.3编制原则61.4可行性研究的范围71.5主要结论7第二章 项目背景和投资的必要性152.1项目背景152.2投资的必要性192.3项目实施的优势21第三章 建设条件233.1区域交通条件233.2自然条件23第四章 工程方案264.1工程概况264.2工艺方案264.3设备改造314.4土建工程324.5公用工程32第五章 环境保护355.1执行标准355.2现有生产线工程污染源、污染物355.3技改项目工程污染源、污染物3

50、85.4污染治理效果41第六章 节能426.1概述426.2项目能耗计算原则426.3节能技术方案43第七章 安全生产、工业卫生和劳动保护457.1安全生产457.2工业卫生467.3劳动保护46第八章 实施进度计划47第九章 项目管理489.1项目管理机构489.2工程招标48第十章 投资估算及资金筹措5010.1投资估算5010.2资金筹措5210.3 投资使用计划52第十一章 财 务 评 价5311.1概述5311.2基本数据5311.3财务评价5311.4财务评价结论56第十二章 结论与建议5712.1结论5712.2建议57前 言Xx有限公司地处鄂豫陕交界的历史古城XX境内，位于该市

51、交通路中段。公司创建于1992年，占地面积13565平方米，其中生产设备及办公用房占地面积10000平方米；员工110余人，其中工程技术人员20人，拥有大型生产设备50余台套，产品质量检测设备齐全，年生产产值12亿元，销售收入1.2亿元，利税360万元，是加工生产蓄电池产品的高新技术企业。公司主要产品有有色金属再生冶炼粗铅、电解铅、铅锑合金、低锑合金、铅钙合金、铅基系列用合金、铅酸大(中、小)密蓄电池极板等。产品销往全国各地，在武汉、上海、浙江、河南等大中城市设有销售服务网点。公司把技术开发、规范生产、开拓市场、热诚服务融为一体，在产品生产过程中严把质量关，在产品质量检测中严格执行国家标准，产

52、品质量受到国内用户好评，在国内有一批长期固定的客户群。2001年获ISO9001质量体系认证。公司采用先进的再生铅生产工艺流程，现已形成年处理废旧铅酸蓄电池3.5万吨、年产再生铅2.3万吨、铅及铅合金1万吨的能力。但目前公司再生铅冶炼部分在设备、技术、能源消耗、余热利用等方面均与国外先进的废旧铅酸蓄电池回收技术存在一定的差距。再生铅生产技术与公司发展规模不匹配，整体装备能力及技术水平有待提高。为实现十一.五规划提出的节能降耗和污染减排的目标，创建资源节约型、环境友好型社会，XX市XX蓄电池有限公司依托技术优势、产品优势和市场优势，实施年产23000吨再生铅冶炼技术改造项目。通过废铅酸蓄电池低温

53、连续熔炼技术改造项目的实施，最终实现公司再生铅技术、装备、能耗和环境保护等达到国内先进水平。项目主要内容：1、 改造破碎分选系统，提高分选质量和生产效率；2、 建立废铅酸蓄电池物料低温连续熔炼流程，实现各组分低温连续冶炼，降低再生铅能耗及污染物排放，实现有色金属直接循环利用等。受Xx蓄电池有限公司委托，我公司为该项目编制XX有限公司年产23000吨再生铅冶炼技术改造项目可行性研究报告。为了认真完编制工作，我公司组织相关工程技术人员实地考察了XX蓄电池有限公司，确认了可行性研究所需的相关资料。依据中华人民共和国国务院节能减排综合性工作方案和国家发展和改革委员会颁布的铅锌行业准入条件(2007年第

54、13号公告)和有关资源再生综合利用标准和环境保护政策，我公司对该项目的工艺配置、设备选择和工厂布置等进行了全面细致的整理和编制，完成了XX蓄电池有限公司年产23000吨再生铅冶炼技术改造项目可行性研究报告。第一章 总 论1.1项目概况1.1.1项目名称年产23000吨再生铅冶炼技术改造项目1.1.2项目承担单位XX蓄电池有限公司法人代表：XXX1.1.3项目建设地址XX省XX市交通路160号1.1.4承担可行性研究单位1.1.5项目申报单位基本情况XX市XX蓄电池有限公司地处鄂豫陕交界的历史古城XX境内，位于该市交通路中段。公司创建于1992年，占地面积13565平方米，其中生产设备及办公用房

55、占地面积10000平方米；员工110余人，其中工程技术人员20人，拥有大型生产设备50余台套，产品质量检测设备齐全，年生产产值12亿元，销售收入1.2亿元，利税360万元，是蓄电池产品的高新技术企业。公司主要产品有有色金属再生冶炼粗铅、电解铅、铅锑合金、低锑合金、铅钙合金、铅基系列用合金、铅酸大(中、小)密蓄电池极板等。产品销往全国各地，在武汉、上海、浙江、河南等大中城市设有销售服务网点。公司把技术开发、规范生产、开拓市场、热诚服务融为一体，在产品生产过程中严把质量关，在产品质量检测中严格执行国家标准，产品质量受到国内用户好评，在国内有一批长期固定的客户群。2001年获ISO9001质量体系认

56、证。2007年，公司回收处理废铅酸蓄电池及其它含铅废料4万吨，生产铅及铅基合金2万吨，实现销售收入3亿元，实现利税2000万元，取得了较好的经济效益和社会效益。公司经过最近几年的发展和积累，自有资金充足，财务状况良好。1.1.6项目概况为减少环境污染，提高再生资源综合利用水平，XX蓄电池有限公司自1997年起就开始了以“无污染再生铅技术”为目标的再生铅工艺技术改造工作，通过这些年的滚动改造，实施了废旧铅酸蓄电池资源化利用改造项目，冶炼系统设备改造升级，通过技术改造企业社会效益、经济效益、节能效益和环保效益得到明显提高，使企业领导认识到技术改造是提高企业社会和经济效益的最好措施。本项目是“无污染

57、再生铅技术”项目工作的延续和提高，通过改造生产设备、全面调整能源结构及采用先进节能技术，构建一个高回收率、低能耗、无污染的废铅酸蓄电池综合回收利用体系和综合回收新工艺，生产高附加值的合金铅制品，实现铅二次资源的原生化和再利用，构建再生铅产业领域的循环经济产业链，最终使企业在现有基础上再上一个新台阶，达到“十一五”节能减排计划要求，成为低能耗、低污染、高技术的节能先进企业。项目主要建设内容为：(1)对现有废铅酸蓄电池破碎分选系统进行改造，提高分选质量和效率；(2)铅屑和铅膏分开处理。新增铅屑连续熔炼炉设施，熔炼过程实现铅屑低温、快速熔炼，在减少废气、废渣量等污染物；铅膏通过化学方法脱硫转化后在燃

58、气反射炉内低温熔炼，避免硫进入冶炼车间，减少废气和二氧化硫的排放；(3)将现有的直燃煤反射炉改造为燃气反射炉，由燃用烟煤改为天然气富氧燃烧，减少污染物排放量；(4)改造收尘系统，收尘系统布袋收尘过滤面积由现在的200m2的一套改为500m2的一套。使除尘效率提高到98%以上，对车间弥散烟气进行治理和控制，净化空气；(5)厂内建氧气库，以满足生产过程中富氧燃烧过程中所需要的氧气；(6)采用沉淀、格栅等措施完善污水处理系统，实现冷却水、地表水等的循环利用，减少用水量。通过项目的实施，最终使公司资源综合利用水平、再生铅综合能耗和污染物排放指标达到国内先进水平。项目实施后，再生铅综合能耗由实施前的30

59、0 kgce/tPb下降到150kgce/tPb，按年产再生铅2.3万吨计算，年节约标煤3450吨，节能经济效益290多万元；与国内平均水平相比，吨铅产渣率由20%下降到4%以下，年减少弃渣3680吨；与传统再生铅技术比，铅回收率可提高5-7%，达到98%以上，锑、锡等有色金属在本产业链系统内低成本循环利用，金属利用率达到95%以上；铅膏脱硫、富氧燃烧及使用天然气作为燃料等先进技术应用后,单位产品SO2排放量由32.68吨/万吨下降到1.18吨/万吨、单位产品烟尘排放量由3.72吨/万吨下降到0.27吨/万吨、单位产品铅尘排放量由0.72吨/万吨下降到0.14吨/万吨,年分别减少SO2、烟尘、

60、铅尘排放72.44吨、7.92吨和1.325吨，具有显著的经济、环境和社会效益。1.2编制依据及参考文件1.中华人民共和国节约能源法2.中华人民共和国环境保护法3.中华人民共和国清洁生产促进法4.中华人民共和国水污染防治法5.生态县、生态市、生态省建设指标(试行)6.中华人民共和国固体废物污染环境防治法7.全国生态环境保护纲要国发200038号文8.国务院关于环境保护若干问题的决定国发199631号文9.中华人民共和国安全法 10.中华人民共和国清洁生产促进法 11.国务院关于加快发展循环经济的若干意见国发(2005)22号12.国家环保总局关于推进循环经济发展的指导意见13.国务院关于加强再

61、生资源回收利用管理工作的通知14.当前优先发展的高技术产业化重点领域指南(2007年度)国家发展改革委、科学技术部、商务部、国家知识产权局联合修订15.关于落实国务院加快振兴装备制造业的若干意见有关进口税收政策的通知财关税200711号16.铅锌行业准入条件 17.XX市总体规划18废铅酸电池收集和无害化处理污染控制技术再生铅工业污染物排放标准铅酸蓄电池产品生产许可证实施细则(第二版)18.企业提供的基础资料，以及其他有关规范、规程和技术标准、地方的环保条例规定等。1.3编制原则1.3.1指导思想(1)围绕实现“十一五”GDP能耗降低20%左右的目标，以提高能源利用效率为核心，调整和优化能源结

62、构，加快推进节能技术进步。(2)高标准严要求，达到铅锌行业准入条件，力争企业进入同行业国际先进行列； (3)大力推行清洁生产，加强生态保护，预防为主，保护优先，遏制人为生态破坏。(4)积极稳妥地运用四新技术(新工艺、新技术、新设备和新材料)，既注重技术的先进性，又考虑技术的成熟性和实用性，符合循环经济发展的要求；(5)企业的发展必须和地方经济的发展和谐统一。1.3.2主要设计原则(1)贯彻执行国家关于资源再生综合利用和环境保护的相关政策，保障项目建设遵守国家有关法律、法规、规范及标准。(2)总体技术路线满足危险废物处理的技术要求，符合提高资源综合利用水平，重在系统节能降耗减排。采取全面规划、科

63、学实施的原则，使项目建设与废铅再生资源产生量相协调；既保护环境，又最大限度地发挥社会效益、经济效益和环境效益。(3)根据公司原材料成份和年处理量，所选工艺流程立足国内先进成熟的高新技术，运行可靠、安全、高效节能，经济合理。(4)妥善解决生产过程中产生的“三废”。避免造成二次污染。满足有关的环保法规要求。(5)采用现代化技术及管理手段，降低能源消耗。1.4可行性研究的范围主要针对该项目的必要性及可行性、工程方案、实施进度、招标初步方案、劳动定员、环境保护，劳动安全、消防，节能分析及计算以及投资及经济分析进行研究，并编制可行性研究报告。1.5主要结论 1.5.1场址选择XX蓄电池有限公司年产230

64、00吨再生铅冶炼技术改造项目，在XX蓄电池有限公司现有规划区域内建设。一方面，充分利用现有厂房及设备，在原有设施基础上完善并改造有关设施，提高生产效率，达到节能减排的目的。该厂区现有供电、供水条件落实，水文地质稳定，具备较好的建设条件。另一方面，通过新增破碎分选、反射炉、回转短窑、铅屑转炉等再生铅生产关键设备、生产厂房及脱硫、除尘配套基础设施，使得企业获得更大的经济及环保效益，为以后扩大生产规模作好准备。项目符合铅锌行业准入条件、XX市总体规划及XX市环境保护“十五”计划和到2010年长远规划的要求。1.5.2建设内容(1)破碎分选废蓄电池散料。完善破碎分选系统并新增铅屑二次清洗转鼓、散料振动加料机等设备，使系统满足废蓄电池散料分选及分选物料更利于低温熔炼需要；(2)铅屑和铅膏分开处理。新建铅屑连续熔炼回转炉，实现铅屑低温、快速、连续熔炼，减少废气、废渣量；铅膏湿法脱硫转化后在燃气反射炉或短窑内低温熔炼并施以氧气燃烧技术，减少废气和二氧化硫的排放；(3)选择合理炉型。通过