谈虚拟微政治在网络中非正式策略的影响

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1、 虚拟微政治-在网络中非正式策略的影响一、简介应付全球化和科技发展，在十年之间虚拟组织和网络应运而生，它作为新的组织结构，继续赶超市场的重要性。这点尤其针对网络自由人和中小型企业。虽然虚拟网络已过存在很长时间，但仍需要研究关于他们的在动力以与领导、管理机制。当然，网络管理是一个有趣的话题，因为网络组织常以缺乏正规的层次结构和角色为表达，并没有任何正式的结构。因此，它是在塑造和治理网络中切合实际的呈现非正式行为引发的个人利益所发挥至关重要作用的地方。在研究中，我们调查的微观政治概念是有助于解释虚拟网络中的行为的。“微政治”一词引用的是个人利益攸关者获得权力和影响组织设置的非正式行动。来自组织科学

2、和心理学，在过去的几十年中，组织的微政治行为已广泛分布。我们的论文目的是把微观政治的概念从组织设置成与各组织间的平行。调查微政治行为是否可行的角度需要在虚拟的网络上，进行面试定性研究与各种网络定性，代表质疑他们的看法并考虑行动争取权力的影响。因此，我们的工作的贡献是扩大到组织间的微观政治的概念虚拟网络，提供结构与权力的这种网络策略的第一次实证洞察。二、虚拟网络虚拟组织可以采取各种形式。然而，大多数定义同意虚拟组织是“组织间，跨边界信通法律上独立的实体，通常与一个特定的经济目标之间的协作”的形式。超出这些基本的属性，虚拟组织可以相差很多，例如有关成员资格、参与和持续时间的稳定性等条目。在研究中，

3、我们考虑的虚拟组织作为独立的企业或企业家网络。成员 (或成员组织)分别从事这种形式的合作，以他们预期的经济优势发展，例如以扩大客户群或共同开发新的产品和服务。另一方面，网络成员还经常作为个人在市场上的竞争对手。因此，虚拟企业网络中的协作也被称作“合作竞争”类似常任理事国间微妙的平衡行为之间的合作与竞争。我们所研究的虚拟网络大多是多中心网络，即高度分布式和其成员的高度自治的松散耦合的关联。这意味着通常是有特殊权限或优于其他成员没有正式的权力。在我们的调查中，小型和中型企业或自由职业者组成了主要的网络。在这样的网络中，典型的元素虚拟组织变得尤为明显，如缺乏正规的层次结构和规则以与信息、通信技术的严

4、重依赖。此外，面对上文“合作竞争”一定量的成员之间的信任是关键处理的不安全感和不拘形式的情况。特点有网络成员之间的个人关系（或代表的成员企业）分别发挥着至关重要的作用。基于这种特性，我们将使用术语“虚拟网络”和组织间网络互换在此文件中。三、微政治组织的概念微政治组织的概念包括个体角色不断进行交互。微政治进程中组织科学视为个人谈判其利益的过程，在与他人交往和获得权力并施加影响的策略。尽管这些进程包含非正式的性质和非组织的认可，但不会影响组织的权力结构。3.1 组织微政治进程在过去的几十年里由于理论刊物的快速增长和实证研究集中的影响以与政治组织设置的组织科学和心理学的影响。微政治进程已被广泛讨论的

5、一种方法侧重于组织成员的政治行为。在这方面，微政治被认为是一组常规的具有社会性为且能作出贡献的组织基本运作的一部分。因此，微政治进程有经常调查的方式观察员工的影响策略。在工作中使用此类影响策略可以针对不同的目标或以自我中心，以与组织集中。在这一领域的工作已导致各种类型的影响策略，以与他们前因后果的可能性。3.2 组织间的微政治进程我们认为，在微政治治理的一个有用的概念和领会关系中，特别是治理的多中心网络，是没有正式的结构和规则的，然而非正式的流程和策略的影响以与谈判方式，也会引发关于“政治”行为重要性的行为者意识。在虚拟的网络中，领导模式的正式结构丢失，组成联盟，并建立一个有影响力的位置，并从

6、合作中受益的个别活动应有特别的效果。此外，信息和通信技术(ICT)的使用，虚拟网络可能有助于，甚至构成微政治进程，若技术有助于使现有的流程和结构更加明确，既带来新的角色和规则，信息和通信技术的使用中的经验非常丰富的网络成员就可能使用他们的知识来获得掌控力。因此，我们在研究中需要研究以下问题：1什么微政治进程可以在组织间被网络标识？他们是不同类型的策略，在组织的上下文中可识别吗？2如何识别微政治行为的组织间设置成功与否？它是如何影响虚拟网络的？3微政治进程是如何通过虚拟网络中的技术实现的？四、方法研究是在 2009 年春季与有关治理与创新中组织间提与的研究项目的一部分。依靠互联网探究，我们招聘对

7、网络组织有兴趣的成员去定性的研究会谈。需要满足以下条件列入研究网络： a)水平成员/成员组织b)多中心治理和c)最低的三个成员/成员组织之间的关系。总体而言，我们对来自不同的部门和行业（包括媒体设计、海运业、房地产业务、咨询业务、贴标工业医学、农业)的虚拟网络成员进行了半结构化的深入访谈。企业规模达30名与中小企不从单身企业等。介乎3至12个成员/成员组织的网络规模。我们所采访人的年龄在28到61岁之间，其中有6名女性和9名男性。经济目标像是联合客户的项目或是销售被命名的网络主体13/15的网络代理。稍有不同，医疗网络的目的是促进沟通和交流，跨不同的医疗机构，并订定条文，改善病人的医疗服务。农

8、民作为农业合作社的网络，所有网络长期存在，并安排他们的合作，主要是通过信息和通信技术的使用。技术应用先进的通信和群件平台，从通过电子和交换不等。要获得全面和有效的数据，对人际关系的影响过程，我们专注于个人的网络位置是否允许积极的相互作用，并且可否与其他网络伙伴合作交流，或换言之谁是可能的对源目标影响的测试。因此，我们专注于自由职业者和代表的小型和中型的企业，作为在网络的各组织的边界“扳手”。面试伙伴被问与他们的经验影响、政治觉悟、领导能力以与网络知识，即哪些策略他们一直在使用或其他网络成员的行为一直在使用，这些问题包含着他们在网络的利益与如何使事件成功的方法，当然这些方式已经被落实了。为引出这

9、些经验，我们请来描述所谓的关键事件被访者或关键的影响尝试已经发生的人物，微政治后的通用过程并记录研究情况。关于微政治行为的有效性，没有固定的标准，成功的决心事先确认，而被访者被要求为他们的主观判断是否应用策略并代表他们或其他的网络成员。此标准，作为只需“获取的方式”成功的通过其他研究微观政治来获取信息。此外，被访者被问与有关网络、竞争和信任的问题同时对项目过程的创新与使用信息、通信技术等方面的问题。同时搜集了正式的方面，例如网络大小、持续时间、 地域分布等方面的数据。面试(30-90分钟），转录就是为了根据一套固定的转录方式与预先定义的规则。使用组合先验，事后利用方法进行定性的容分析：第一步，

10、面试的数据结构是依法推论出来，组织的微政治进程的文献的分类。第二步，在分类系统改进，进一步增加策略确定通过描述的行为和数据，网络代理与行为的类。共31种区别，具体微政治行动分别按15种不同类别。新开发的分类系统稳定性（编码器可靠性）所测试的重复编码后首次分析的三个星期里发现，科恩的卡伯值计算可靠性指标，编码器可靠性很优秀(k =91）。同样，交互编码的可靠性（通过编码由三个独立的取值测算所得）被证明也是很好的（k = 77）。五、讨论我们研究的目的是在虚拟的网络中的微政治进程的调查。微观政治组织科学和心理描述非正式的策略，以获得在传统组织中的权力和影响工整的概念。通过传输从组织的这种做法，组织

11、间的水平，我们旨在揭示发生、特征、验收和微政治行为的虚拟网络中的成功。结果表明尽管受下面讨论的一些限制组织微政治行为的概念是确实可行和有助于解释动力学的虚拟网络，包括来自不同企业的行动者。在没有明确的层次结构、结构和角色时，我们所探讨的虚拟网络的主要特点不准确，微政治行为甚至特别不准确。这导致我们的问题是否在组织间网络的微政治行为是根本不同于传统的组织发现的策略。我们的研究结果显示虚拟网络的成员使用微政治策略全汇辑，获得的影响很广泛。但是，有一些区别：第一，就是我们确定的特定于虚拟网络的组织，即调停是可见的并证明为职位空缺的。第二，我们认为这些结果是新的，因为体广泛的组织微政治策略研究，所以到

12、目前为止这些特定的策略尚未查明。第三，我们认为在新发现的策略被根植在非层次结构特征下的虚拟网络（例如形成和抓住（新）的任务和角色），而且在对技术支持的交互上（例如开发的电子通信网络中的可见性的可能性）都有所依赖。不过，这是一个有趣的研究观点，探讨如何用微政治进程指导技术在传统的组织中的应用。措施的成效以与经济指标包括（大小、 持续时间）的成员网络的稳定性尤为重要。此外，在今后的研究包括整个网络（或至少一大批他们的成员）中，也会作为测试的被测人员的微政治进程，收敛性的一种手段，从而帮助验证结果或进一步深入“虚拟微观政治”的机制。同时注意结果中描述微政治过程组织间网络的多中心的结构组成的独立成员或

13、成员组织和缺乏正规的层次结构的角色。更正式的虚拟组织的类型可能会遇到其他形式的微政治行为的影响。六、涵义与未来动向在这一节，我们简要讨论可能影响的结构与治理结构的虚拟网络，以与设计的技术，用于支持虚拟的合作，并确定该问题的进一步研究价值。6.1 涉与问题的研究与实践结构与治理结构的虚拟网络。基于我们的研究是可行的假设，微政治行为影响是相互的，沟通和决定性的方式处理在虚拟网络决策中产生了结果。因此，播放“虚拟微政治”的方式可能会影响结果的稳定和成功率。这也是未来开放研究所需要阐明的机制问题。研究结果表明不同的网络发展特色“组织”文化中的不同级别和微政治行为的策略是可接受和认可的。因此，我们做个假

14、设，个别的微政治策略和首选项的作用成为了过程中的某些网络成员。如果虚拟网络管理传达他们的“微政治文化”理念，他们可就这些(自我)的甄选程序，去创造更大的稳定并减少网络中的冲突。再次，这些影响，需要在今后的研究中加以澄清。对于设计和所用的技术，我们的研究结果也显示技术是微政治行为的重要载体。因此，作为设计师的组件、其他信息和通信技术，我们应该仔细看如何设计决策促进或收缩微政治行为。对于实际的意义，如上文所述，有许多对结构的含义，虚拟网络感兴趣的研究人员，以与从业人员的管理人员。例如，选择新成员、处理冲突、网络规则的制定、分配角色，甚至选择技术等然而，在虚拟的网络中，微政治进程研究的早期阶段，详细

15、的建议还很难做。作为一般性发言，从组织微政治进程研究学习开始，组织就不应忽略或设法抑制非正式规则的行为。微观政治是现实的组织，也可以产生有益的作用，因为它释放了员工的创造力和动机的一部分。同样，虚拟网络的成员应接受微政治行为作为“游戏”规则。鉴于消极协会的权力，这可能不是件容易的事：“禁忌的力量仍可能是深深植根于禁忌的现代人的良心中的”。同样地，以前的研究表明虚拟网络的成员通常尽量避免竞争，这是无疑的另一个现实的组织间合作的问题。克服这些禁忌是虚拟网络，可能会在咨询过程中处理的组织发展面所临的挑战。6.2 将来的工作我们计划是在自己的研究中，仔细看看技术和虚拟微政治之间的关联。研究问题，包括如

16、何从不同类型的媒体鼓励间证明其有效（对于不同的微政治策略）。在这样做时，我们会特别调查电子工件和虚拟网络中的通信模式。此外，我们计划在不同阶段的合作中，在虚拟的网络调查微政治行为：例如，特定的策略可能存在合作（例如假装拥有一定的资源），稍后可能变得过时或甚至有害的初始阶段。此外，进出虚拟网络化进程将对微政治行为分析。当然也有一些，提示我们的数据应使用不同的策略，取决于他们的年龄、性别与专业背景或行业管理部门经验。但是，我们当前的示例还是太小了，这些差异需要进一步调查。目前，我们正进行额外的采访，用来解决这些问题我们采访指南的修订版本。我们将为这些变量也占在将来定量研究，以探索社会人口因素和专业

17、背景和微政治行为之间的关系。考虑上述讨论，我们计划进行全面调查所有（或至少一大批）成员的属于一个虚拟的网络方法学问题。要这样做，我们将从社会网络分析和价值网络的分析方法着手。从开始所介绍的研究结果，我们现在也正在开发标准化的工具，以用来获得关于使用、感知、和“虚拟微观政治”的影响的可比数据。外文文献与翻译文献、资料题目：Virtual Micro-Politics: Informal Tactics of Influence and Power in Inter-Organizational Networks文献、资料来源：Proceedings of the 43rd Hawaii Inte

18、rn-ational Conference on System Sciences外文文献：Virtual Micro-Politics: Informal Tactics of Influence and Power in Inter-Organizational Networks1. IntroductionDue to globalization and technological developments, virtual organizations and networks have emerged in the last decade as new organizational st

19、ructures and continue to gain importance on the market. This is especially true for networks of freelancers and small and medium-sized enterprises. Although virtual networks have been studied for quite some time, there is still need for research regarding their inner dynamics and the mechanisms of l

20、eadership and governance. Network governance is an interesting topic because inter-organizational networks are typically characterized by a lack of formal hierarchies and roles and have no formal structure of leadership. Thus, it is sensible to assume that informal actions of individual stakeholders

21、 play a crucial role in shaping and governing the network. In our study, we investigated whether the concept of micro-politics is useful to explain behavior in virtual networks. The term micro-politics refers to informal actions of individual stakeholders to gain power and exert influence within an

22、organizational setting. Originating in organizational science and psychology, micro-political behavior within organizations has been extensively researched in the last decades. The aim of our paper is to transfer the concept of micro-politics from the intra-organizational setting to the inter-organi

23、zational level. To investigate whether micro-political behavior is a feasible perspective on virtual networks, we conducted a qualitative interview study with representatives of various networks, questioning them about their perception and use of actions to gain power and influence. Therefore, the c

24、ontribution of our work is to extend the concept of micro-politics to inter-organizational-or virtual-networks and to provide first empirical insights into structures and tactics of power within such networks. The paper is structured as follows: In section 2, we discuss and define virtual networks,

25、as we understand them in our study. In section 3, we introduce the concept of micro-politics within organizations and transfer it to inter-organizational relations. Section 4 describes the methodology of our study. Results are presented and discussed in sections 5 and 6. We conclude the article by d

26、iscussing implications for the design of virtual networks and the supporting ICT from a researchers as well as a practitioners viewpoint and describing prospects for future work.2. Virtual networksVirtual organizations can take various forms. However, most definitions agree that virtual organization

27、s are forms of inter-organizational, crossborder ICT-enabled collaboration between legally independent entities, usually with a specific economic goal.Beyond those basic properties, virtual organizations can vary considerably regarding the stability of membership and participation and also the durat

28、ion and goals of the cooperation.In our research, we take a view of virtual organizations as networks of independent enterprises or entrepreneurs. Members (or member organizations, respectively) engage in this form of cooperation because they expect economic advantages, e.g. to broaden the customer

29、base or develop new products and services together. On the other hand, network members often also act as individual competitors on the market. Thus, collaboration in virtual business networks has also been termed coopetition: A permanent and delicate balancing act between cooperation and competition

30、.The virtual networks that we studied are mostly polycentric networks, i.e. highly distributed and loosely coupled associations with high degrees of autonomy of its members. This implies that there is typically no formal leader with special authority or superior to the other members. The networks we

31、 investigated are constituted predominantly by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) or freelancers.In such networks, typical elements of virtual organizations become especially apparent, such as a lack of formal hierarchies and rules and a heavy reliance upon information and communication techn

32、ology.Furthermore, facing the coopetition explained above, a certain amount of trust among members is crucial to deal with the insecurity and informality of the situation: Thus, personal relations between network members (or representatives of member enterprises, respectively) play a vital role.Base

33、d on this characterization, we will use the terms virtual networks and inter-organizational networks interchangeably in this paper.3. The concept of micro-politicsOrganizations consist of individual actors who interact constantly. Micro-political processes are understood in organizational science as

34、 strategies of individuals to negotiate their interests in interaction with others and gain and exert influence and power. Even though these processes are typically informal in nature and not organizationally sanctioned, they nevertheless influence power structures within organizations.3.1. Intra-or

35、ganizational micro-politicalprocessesIn the last decades there has been a rapid growth intheoretical publications and empirical studies inorganizational science and psychology that havefocused on influence and politics in intra-organizationalsettings.One approach to micro-political processes that ha

36、sbeen extensively discussed focuses on theorganizational members political behavior. On thisnote, micro-politics is regarded as part of a general setof social behaviors that can contribute to the basicfunctioning of organizations. Accordingly, micro-political processes have beenfrequently investigat

37、ed by means of observingemployees influence tactics. Such influence tacticsused at work can be aimed at different goals and selffocusedas well as organization-focused. Work inthis field has led to a variety of typologies of influencetactics as well as their possible antecedents andconsequences.3.2.

38、Inter-organizational micro-politicalprocessesIn our view, micro-politics is a useful concept tostudy and understand inter-organizational relations aswell, especially polycentric networks without formalstructures and rules of governance, giving way toinformal processes and tactics of influence andneg

39、otiation and also raising actors consciousnessregarding the importance of politically behavior.As formal structures of leadership are missing,individual activities to form coalitions and build aninfluential position in order to benefit from thecooperation should be especially effective in virtualnet

40、works.Furthermore, information and communicationtechnology (ICT) used by virtual networks mightcontribute to or even constitute micro-politicalprocesses, as technology serves to both make existingprocesses and structures more explicit as well as bringforth new roles and rules. Network actors whoare

41、well experienced in the use of ICT might use theirknowledge to gain power.Therefore, in our study we investigated thefollowing main research questions:1. What micro-political processes can beidentified within inter-organizationalnetworks? Are they different from typicaltactics found in the intra-org

42、anizationalcontext?2. How successful is micro-political behavior inan inter-organizational setting? How does itaffect the virtual network?3. How are micro-political processes enactedthrough technology in virtual networks?4. MethodThe study was conducted in the spring of 2009 aspart of a larger resea

43、rch project concerned withgovernance and innovation in inter-organizationalnetworks1. By means of a systematic Internet researchwe recruited members of inter-organizational networksfor a qualitative interview study. The networks neededto fulfill the following criteria to be included in thestudy: a)

44、horizontal relationships betweenmembers/member organizations, b) polycentricgovernance, and c) a minimum of threemembers/member organizations.Overall, we conducted 15 semi-structured in-depthinterviewswith members of virtual networksfrom different sectors and industries (IT, media design,shipping in

45、dustry, real estate business, consultingbusiness, labeling industry medicine, farming). Theenterprise size ranged from single-person enterprises toSMEs with up to thirty members. The network sizeranged from three to twelve members/memberorganizations. Our interview partners were betweenages 28 and 6

46、1, six were female, nine male.Economic goals such as joint customer projects orsales orders were named as the networks primaryobjective by 13 of the 15 network representatives.Slightly different, the medical networks aim was tofacilitate communication and exchange across differentmedical sectors and

47、, therewith, to improve patientsmedical treatment. The network of farmers acted as anagricultural cooperative. All networks were aimed atlong-term existence and arranged their collaborationmainly through the use of information andcommunication technologies. The technologies appliedranged from exchan

48、ge via and telephone tosophisticated communication and groupware platforms.To obtain comprehensive and valid data on interpersonal influence processes, we focused on individuals whose network positions allowed for lively interactions and exchange with the other network partners, or-in other words-wh

49、o were likely to beboth the source and aim of influence attempts. Therefore we concentrated on freelancers and representatives of small and middle-sized enterprises, acting as the organizations boundary spanners within the network.The interview partners were asked about their experiences with influe

50、nce and politics, leadership, and power within their networks, i.e. what tactics and behaviors they had either been using themselves or other network members had been using to push their interests within the network, and how successful these tactics had proven. To elicit these experiences, we asked

51、the interviewees to describe so-called criticalIncidents or key situations in which influence attempts had occurred, following the common procedure of prior research on micro-politics. Concerning the effectiveness of micro-political behavior, no fixed criteria for success were determined beforehand;

52、 instead the interviewees were asked for their subjective judgment whether the tactics applied had worked out for them or other network members. This open criterion of success as simply getting ones way has been commonly used in other studies on micro-politics as well.Furthermore, the interviewees w

53、ere asked about the emergence of the network, the issue of competition and trust, processes of innovation, and the use of ICT. Data on formal aspects such as network size, duration, geographical distribution etc. was alsoollected. The interviews (30-90 minutes duration) were audiotaped and transcrib

54、ed literally according to a fixed set of transcription rules that had been defined beforehand. A qualitative content analysis was conducted using a combined a-priori/post-hoc approach: In a first step, the interview data was structured according to a category system deduced from the literature on mi

55、cro-political processes within organizations. In a second step, the category system was refined by adding further categories of tactics identified through the described behaviors and actions of network agents in the data. A total of 31 distinguishable concrete micro-political actions in 15 different

56、 categories were identified.The stability (intra-coder reliability) of the newly developed category system was tested by repeated coding three weeks after the first analysis. Cohens Kappa wasalculated as reliability index. Intra-coder reliability was excellent (k=.91). Likewise, the inter-coder reli

57、ability (tested by having the material coded by three independentaters) proved to be very good (k=.77).6. DiscussionThe aim of our study was to investigate micro-political processes in virtual networks. Icro-politics is a well-researched concept in organizational science andsychology describing info

58、rmal tactics to gain influence and power in traditionalrganizations. By transferring this approach from the intra-organizational to thenter-organizational level, we aimed to shed light on the occurrence, characteristics, acceptance, and success of micro-political behavior in virtual networks. Result

59、sndicate-despite some limitations discussed below-that the concept oficro-political behavior in organizations is indeed feasible and useful to explain theynamics of virtual networks, which comprise actors from different enterprises. In the absence of clear hierarchies, structures, and roles, which i

60、s a key characteristic of the virtual networks we explored, micro-political behavior even seems to fall onspecially fertile ground. This leads us to the question whether micro-political behavior innter-organizational networks is at all different from tactics found within traditional organizations. O

61、ur results show that members of virtual networks use the wholeepertoire of micro-political tactics to gain and exert influence and power. However,here are some differences: For one thing, we identified tactics specific tovirtual networks and organizations, namely ediating,Being Visible, and Claiming

62、 Vacancies. Future studieswith larger amples might discover additional ones.We argue that these results are indeed new, sinceinhe extensive body of research on intra-organizationalmicro-political tactics, these specifictactics ave not been identified so far.In our view, the newly identified tactics

63、are rootedin the non-hierarchical character of virtual networks(e.g. forming and seizing (new) tasks and roles), butalso in the reliance on technology-supportedinteraction (e.g. exploiting the possibilities ofelectronic communication for visibility within thenetwork). Nevertheless, it is an interest

64、ing researchperspective to explore whether and how micro-politicalprocesses are enacted through technology in traditionalorganizations as well.Furthermore, networks are typically characterizedby especially strong interdependencies betweenindividual actors. Therefore individuals have moreopportunities to control others and push their owninterests by micro-political behavior than in traditionalorganizations.Nevertheless, unlike one might assume, micro-politicalbehavior in vir