重点大学语言Chapter 9 PsycholinguisticsTeaching Plan

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1、Chapter 9PsycholinguisticsObjectivesThe students will learn how the human mind/brain supports the learning, comprehension, and production of language. The students will understand the relation of language to thought. Students will be able to1) develop general knowledge of basic issues in psycholingu

2、istics, including: language acquisition, language production, language comprehension, and the relation of language to thought; 2) identify the basic areas of the brain involved in language and describe the functions carried out by these areas; 3) list the major issues in the areas of speech percepti

3、on, word recognition, sentence processing, text processing, reading and language acquisition;4) explore the major theories in the area of psycholinguistics.Key Points1) The biological foundation of language2) Language acquisition: overgeneralization and undergeneralization3) Language production: con

4、ceptualization, formulation, etc.4) Language comprehension: the comprehension of sound, word, sentence, and textProcedureThis chapter will be organized into two lectures. During the first lecture, what is supposed to be dealt with is an introduction to psycholinguistics and topics about language pro

5、duction and language acquisition. During the second, efforts will be made to discuss upon the topics of language comprehension and the relation between language and thought.Lecture OneThis lecture includes the following steps:Step 1: Attention-getting Two video clips (3) Two interesting questions (G

6、et the students involved in the lecture)Step 2: Task-performingTasks:1. What is psycholinguistics?2. What are the central issues in psycholinguistics? (Part One)2.1 The biological foundation of language2.2 Language production2.3 Language acquisition3. Questions to think aboutStep 3: Content-reviewin

7、gMain points at a glanceStep 4: Works-assigningLECTURE NOTESStep 1 Attention-gettingQuestion1: You know birds and beasts, both of them can produce sound. The question is whose sound production is more like human beings sound making?Why?Question 2: They say “birds and beasts do not have human languag

8、e.” But, can we teach them a language?Watch a video clip“An Einstein bird” (301)Question 3: We can teach a bird to learn some simple sentence. Can a bird do it the other way round?Watch a video clip “An aphasiac American” (17)Why?To answer the questions here, you have to concern about human brain/mi

9、nd, language acquisition, language production, language comprehension, and language and thought. These are the central topics in psycholinguistics.Objectives at a glance:1. What is psycholinguistics?2. What are the central issues in psycholinguistics? (Part One)2.1 The biological foundation of langu

10、age2.2 Language production2.3 Language acquisition3. Questions to think aboutStep2 Task-performing1. What is psycholinguistics?We arrive at a definition of psycholinguistics. Ask the students to define psycholinguistics.Definition 1: ( Cf. Para. 2 , Page 220, TB) Definition 2: Psycholinguistics is a

11、 new science which attempts to study language as a psychological process, a study of great theoretical and practical significance. It takes the human language and its psychological processes as its subject area. Its aim is to find out about the structures and processes that underlie human beings abi

12、lity to learn, to speak and to understand language.2. What are the central issues in psycholinguistics? (Part Two)Ask the students to list the central issues in psycholinguistics.Now we know for sure what we are going to do in psycholinguistics. And we can develop a scientific explanation about diff

13、erence between human sound making and birds or beasts sound producing. (You can answer the first three questions above in right direction and on the right track.)2.1 The biological foundation of languageDogs cannot produce human language simply because they do not have speech organs of human type. W

14、hats more, they do not have human brain.2.1.1 Speech organs (Brief review)Instances of abnormal or damaged speech organsDamage to the nasal cavity Damage to the vocal cord (Li Wen-hua)Abnormal lips/ tongue/ teeth (motor mouththin lips, thick lips; Churchill)2.1.2 Modification of air stream (Birds ar

15、e much better than beasts in modifying air stream.)2.1.3 Human brain1848: discovery of language ability as located in the left part of the brain.Phineas P. Gage was a railroad construction foreman now remembered for his incredible survival of an accident in which a large iron rod was driven complete

16、ly through his head, destroying one or both of his brains frontal lobes (大脑前庭), and for that injurys reported effects on his personality and behavioreffects so profound that friends saw him as no longer Gage.Long called the American Crowbar Caseonce termed the case which more than all others is calc

17、ulated to excite our wonder, impair the value of prognosis, and even to subvert our physiological doctrinesPhineas Gage influenced 19th-century discussion about the brain, particularly debate on cerebral localization, and was perhaps the first case suggesting that damage to specific regions of the b

18、rain might affect personality and behavior.2.1.3.1 Parts of the brain Brain stem（脑干）: connects the brain to the spinal cord Corpus callosum（脑胼胝体）: connects the two hemispheres Left hemisphere Right hemisphere2.1.3.2 Locations of language functions in the brain Brocas area(布洛卡区): anterior speech cort

19、ex involved in the production of speech Wernickes area（威尼克区）: posterior speech cortex: involved in the understanding of speech Supplementary motor area（辅助运动区）: superior speech cortex: involved in the physical articulation of speech2.1.3.3 The localisation view Oversimplified view Specific aspects of

20、 language ability can be accorded specific locations in the brain Recent research: Left hemisphere: analytic processing Right hemisphere: holistic processingBirds and beasts do not have such a complicated brain.Transition：(骂人：“鸟人”与“畜生”不通人性，不懂人话。)Question 4: How do human beings acquire language?2.2 L

21、anguage acquisition (Chapter 12)Chomskys viewLanguage is innate. LAD & UGPinkers viewInnateVaneechoutte and SkoylesMAD (music acquiring device) vs. LAD (language acquisition device)Evidence?Empirical knowledge?2.2.1 OvergeneralizationThe extension of a rule beyond its limitOvergeneralization.Presupp

22、osition: Language is rule-governed. That is, sentences follow the rules of some natural language. Grammar rules transform underlying meanings into grammatical sentences of natural language.An example of over-generalization is the use of dog to refer to other mammals roughly the size of dogs such as

23、goats in addition to dogs.me three / comfortablerThe cat is on the mat, the cat is on top of the mat.*The mat is under the cat, the mat is beneath the cat etc.Question 5: Why is there overgeneralization in language acquisition?Cf: Negative-transfer2.2.2 UndergeneralizationWhen a child uses a word(or

24、 a linguistic construct) in a more limited way than adults do, this phenomenon is called undergeneralization.Examples of under-generalization are harder to observe because they require noticing that the child fails to use a word for a referent where an adult would use the word. An example would be t

25、he use of dog to refer only to a particular dog.Ask the students to give some examples.Question 6: Do adults have the problem of undergenerlization?Press: Mr. President, how do you feel about the situation with Katrina? Bush: Well, once we find Katrina, were going to bring her to justice!Bushisml Ra

26、rely is the questioned asked: Is our children learning? Florence, S.C., Jan. 11, 2000l Our enemies are innovative and resourceful, and so are we. They never stop thinking about new ways to harm our country and our people, and neither do we. Washington, D.C., Aug. 5, 2004 Transition: The problem of o

27、vergeneralization or undergeneralization occurs in the process of language acquisition. However, it also tells us something about language production. Indeed, it mirrors the process of language-producing.2.3 Language productionLanguage production is a process from idea generation to language express

28、ion. It is a mental process that is heavily influenced by language usersculture.Language production contains four successive stages: conceptualization, formulation, articulation and self regulation.2.3.1 ConceptualizationThere is general agreement as to the fundamental components which are constitut

29、ive for the language production apparatus. Conceptualization, formulation, articulation, and self-regulation, this four-partitive model has been the referential frame for most of the work on language production. Following several years of intensive research in the field of language production, insig

30、hts have been gained into the two components that involve linguistic structures: the formulator and the articulator. The conceptualizer, however, is still more or less terra incognita. It is not only that we are unable to specify the nature of the processes involved, we do not know what the format a

31、nd units are in which to model a LANGUAGE OF THOUGHT. Question 7: Is there a mentalese (mental language)? There are a number of diverging hypotheses on the point in question, the role of language. Three positions can be distinguished:The radical position 1: processes in the conceptualizer are langua

32、ge-free, universal, and operate on the basis of conceptual primitives. This is the view put forward, for instance, in the approach to language and concepts by Jackendoff and related work on production by Bierwisch and Schreuder . The radical position 2: processes in the conceptualizer are language-b

33、ased in nature (Whorfian view). This position is advocated in recent work by Lucy and Levinson. The moderate position: there is an interdependence between conceptualization and linguistic knowledge with two possible assumptions: a. The preverbal message, as the result of the conceptual planning proc

34、ess, is language-oriented. This means that a reorganization of the conceptual material takes place at the end of the planning process, thereby shaping the message according to language-specific requirements. Levelt assumes that these processes do not affect the WHAT or content of the message. This b

35、elongs to macrostructural planning. According to his model, language specificity concerns only HOW content is packaged for verbalization. Language-specific planning occurs therefore only at the microstructural level. b. The THINKING-FOR-SPEAKING hypothesis, which argues that conceptualization as a c

36、omponent of language production is always based on language-specific principles. The level of specificity of these principles remains an open question (Talmy 1988). Important for the line of argumentation in the present paper is that under this view language-dependent conceptualization is relevant a

37、t the global (and local) level of message generation. 2.3.2 FormulationCf: pages 224-225, TBOne view of formulation:SegmentationSelectionStructuringLinearization(Evidence from speech errors)Spoonerisms 首音误置Well-oiled bicycle well-boiled icicle 冰柱Phonological Substitutions (Only lexemes) 音位替换（仅词位）Err

38、or TypeErrorTargetPerseveration持续言语（言语反复不止） : John gave the goy a ball John gave the boy a ball Anticipation提前出现: alsho share also share Feature Substitution特征替换: tap stobs (Voiced) 清浊替换tab stops Cedars of Lemadon (Nasal) 鼻音替换b-m（唇音） n-d（齿龈音）Cedars of Lebanon Lexical Selection Errors Semantically Ba

39、sed Substitution Errors以语义为基础的词汇替换错误Antonym Substitution 反义词替换Its too damn hot . . . , I mean, cold in here He rode his bicycle tomorrow (yesterday) Phonologically Based Word Substitutions 以音位为基础的词汇替换He has a new commuter (computer) The instructions gave no inclination . . . indication as to how to

40、do it verbal outfit (output) his immoral soul (immortal) Word Substitutions with Morphological Stranding形态错位they are Turking talkish (talking Turkish) it waits to pay (pays to wait) you have to square it facely (face it squarely) 2.3.3 ArticulationArticulation of speech sounds is the third and a ver

41、y important stage of production. Once we have organized our thoughts into a linguistic plan, this information must be sent from the brain to the muscles in the speech system so that they can then execute the required movements and produce the desired sounds. We depend on vocal organs to produce spee

42、ch sounds so as to express ourselves. In the production of speech sounds, the lungs, larynx and lips may work at the same time and thus form co-articulation. 2.3.4 Self-regulationFinally, we monitor our speech, assessing whether it is what we intended to say and whether we said it the way we intende

43、d to.Self-repairs: overtly monitor, edit and correct our speech. Self interruption: Interrupt after an error is detected64% of the errors were correctedInterruptions occurs very shortly after the error occurs, usually made at the first word boundary after the errorEditing expressions: Utter one of t

44、he various editing expressionsUh, sorry, I meanSelf repairs: Repair the utteranceQuestion 8: Do native speakers make mistakes?Errors are committed only by non-native speakers, but not by native speakers.Native speakers often make “mistakes” and correct themselves immediately, which gives us deep und

45、erstanding of the production process. Firstly, the production is not one-way transmission of messages. Speakers or writers self-regulate constantly so as to ensure each previous stage is accurate. Secondly, speakers or writers are sensitive to mistakes they make. So at the sight of mistakes they are

46、 capable of readjusting messages at the stages of conceptualization, formulation, or articulation quickly. Lastly, the fact that native speakers can monitor and correct mistakes immediately in production proves Chomskys idea that there are some differences between performance and competence. Compete

47、nce monitors performance to ensure the production is accurate.Step 3 Review Cf: the main points at a glanceStep 4 AssignmentsCf: page 237,TBLecture TwoStep 1: Lead-inAsk the students to read the following picture for sensible information.Questions to think about:Question 1: Is comprehension rule-gov

48、erned?Question 2: Is comprehension analytical?Question 3: Is comprehension language-based? Context-based? Image-based?Step 2: Task-performing2.4 Language comprehensionOne of the primary aims of psycholinguistics is to understand how people create and understand language.Language comprehension is an

49、important aspect of day to day functioning in adulthood. Comprehension of written and spoken language relies on the ability to correctly process word and phrase meanings, sentence grammar, and discourse or text structure. 2.4.1 Speech perception/ Sound recognitionl The main problem of word recogniti

50、on is deciphering the speech signal.l Speech is a continuous signal; there is usually no pause between units of meaning.l Also, a single phoneme will be acoustically very different when pronounced by different people at different times.Question: How do we understand what we hear?2.4.2 Word recogniti

51、onQuestion: How do we recognize words?One theory is the cohort theory: it hypothesizes that word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words beginning with the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound, with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived:A model of cohort

52、theory: (Demonstrate the word letter by letter)SPINNINGSupport for Cohort Theoryl Many experiments have shown that word recognition is much more impaired by the mispronunciation of the initial letter of the word than by the mispronunciation of later letters.Question: What about situations with no cl

53、ear word boundary?l In spoken language, there is usually no pause between one word and the next. l So, for example, papepozd, it could be either Papa posed or Pop opposed. More examples are:grey tiegreat eyea namean aiman ice mana nice manI screamice creamsee Mableseem ableThe Frequency Effectl We a

54、lso find that a word is accessed more easily if it is used more frequently in the language.l This effect is not easy to explain assuming the Cohort Theory is true; one possibility may be that the lexicon is partially organized by frequency.The Recency Effectl People also recognize a word faster when

55、 they have just heard or read it than when they have not recently encountered it.l This may be explainable as a sub-effect of the Frequency Effect, but it still does not jibe with Cohort Theory.Contextl People recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for

56、it. Compare:This is an aorta.The heart surgeon carefully cut into the wall of the aorta.l In experiments, subjects require more time to access the meaning of “aorta” in sentences like the first than in sentences like the second.l One proposed mechanism for this is a semantic association network, a n

57、et of relationships between various semantically related words in our lexicon.2.4.3 Sentence recognition/ Syntactic processingl Once a word has been identified, it is used to construct a syntactic structure.l Psycholinguists generally assume that the structure is built as soon as possible, rather th

58、an waiting to see what the whole string of words is before deciding.Ambiguityl However, there are complications due to the ambiguity of individual words and the different ways they can be fit into phrases.l For example:The cop saw the spy with the binoculars.The horse raced past the barn fell.Garden

59、 Path Sentencesl “Garden Path” sentences like this one are often extremely difficult to parse; not because they are syntactically complex (The car driven past the barn crashed is much easier to understand but syntactically identical), but because of the way we make meaning while we listen. l The gar

60、den path is a reference to the saying to be led up the garden path, meaning to be misled.l Other examples:Other examples of garden path sentences are:SentenceInitial likely partial parseFinal parseThe old man the boat.The man, who is old.The boat is manned by the old people.The man whistling tunes p

61、ianos.The man, who is whistling melodies.The man, who is whistling, also tunes pianos.The cotton clothing is made of grows in Mississippi.The clothing, which is made of cotton, is made of.The cotton, of which clothing is made, is grown in Mississippi.The complex houses married and single soldiers an

62、d their families.The houses (meaning buildings or families), which are complicated, got married to.Soldiers (both married and single), and their families, are housed in the complex.The author wrote the novel was likely to be a best-seller.The author composed the novel.The author wrote a comment, say

63、ing the novel was likely to be a best-seller.The tomcat curled up on the cushion seemed friendly.The tomcat curled itself up on the cushion.The tomcat that was in a curled-up position on the cushion seemed friendly.The man returned to his house was happy.The man came back to his house.The man, who was returned to his house, was happy.The government plans to raise taxes were defeated.The government is making plans to raise taxes.The plans of the government to raise taxes were defeated.Jokes: Ask the students to give some jokes