《语言学导论》重点整理(共20页)

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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics? Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question-what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned wit

2、h the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity 2. Explicitness 3. Rigorousness 4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1) General Linguistics: the study of language as a whole Phonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communication Phonology: the stu

3、dy of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2) : Syntax the study of sentence structure.

4、 It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning. Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context Sociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society. Psycholingustics:the study of language with rel

5、ation to psychology Applied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs.descriptive Synchronic vs. diachronic Speech and writing Langue and parole Competence and performance Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descri

6、ptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language? Language is not an abstract construction

7、of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols us

8、ed for human communication8. Design features (Properties) Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitrary Productivity: creativity or open-endedness Duality: double articulation(sounds and meanings) Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragon Cultural transmission: meme, mem

9、ics (Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. Assignments Comment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds

10、 of language􀂄 Three branches of phonetics􀂄 Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学: the production of speech sounds.􀂄 Auditory Phonetics听觉语音学: the study of the perception of speech sounds􀂄 Acoustic Phonetics声学语音学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speec

11、h sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔 2.The oral cavity口腔 3.The nasal cavity鼻腔3. Two kinds of transcription􀂄 Broad transcription宽式标音: transcription with letter-symbols􀂄 Narrow transcription窄式标音: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification

12、 of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of language􀂄 Difference 􀂄 Phone, phoneme, allophone􀂄 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophones􀂄 Phonology is the study o

13、f sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone 音素􀂄 phone: the smallest perceptible discre

14、te segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with 9. Phoneme 音位􀂄 the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large

15、 number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme 音位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identify

16、ing minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.􀂄 Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone 音位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:􀂄 Phonolog

17、ical patterning is rule-governed. blik and kilb, though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while kbil or lkib cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in the following cases:􀂄 * tl

18、ait iltrit13.Sequential rule􀂄 If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:􀂄 a. The first phoneme must be /s/􀂄 b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/􀂄 c. The third phoneme mus

19、t be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation rule􀂄 A sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal in-􀂄 Question: What other examples?􀂄 sink /since 􀂄 p

20、an cake 􀂄 sun glasses 􀂄 five past seven 􀂄 has to15. Deletion rule􀂄 A sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonation􀂄 Suprasegmental （超切分）phonology 􀂄 Suprasegmental phonemes: 􀂄 stre

21、ss, tone and intonation17.Stress重音􀂄 Word stress/sentence stress 􀂄 Primary stress/secondary stress􀂄 Stress of compounds: blackbird / black bird; greenhouse / green house􀂄 Sentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone

22、 (声调）􀂄 Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.􀂄 In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）

23、48708; When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:􀂄 Difference between phonetics and phonology􀂄

24、 Phone, phoneme, allophone􀂄 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of wordsИ

25、708; 1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs􀂄 2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns3. Word Relations􀂄 Words can be related to other words, e.g. happy unhappy.⣷

26、08; The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology contains fundamental elements morphemes rules of combination - Word Formation Rules4. Morphemes􀂄 The elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest

27、unit of meaning you can have in a language.􀂄 we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning 2. its form (the sounds that make it up) 3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: 􀂄 Unhappy 􀂄 Happier 􀂄 unhappier6. Bound and Free

28、 Morphemes􀂄 In the word doors there are two morphemes: door and -s.􀂄 The morpheme door can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.􀂄 But the morpheme s cannot be used by itself: How many doors did you shut? More than one. OK s Not OK􀂄 Therefore, -s is c

29、alled a BOUND morpheme.7. Affixes􀂄 Morphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) un- in unable2. suffixes (at end) -ed in walked3. circumfixes (at both ends) en-en in enlighten (These always se

30、em to consist of otherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) - -bloody- in inbloody- credible8.Derivational morphemes􀂄 Derivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.􀂄 E.g. Noun- Adjective 􀂄 aff

31、ection + ate 􀂄 alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional Morphology􀂄 Morphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: person number gender noun class case tense􀂄 Inflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional

32、morphemes do not change the core meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur outside derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the

33、languagederivation compoundingderivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion14. Word formation􀂄 * affixation 􀂄 * coinage: Ford, Kodak􀂄 * compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit􀂄 * conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake&#

34、1048708; * derivation: alcoholic, affectionate􀂄 * back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze􀂄 * blending: smog, motel, globesity􀂄 * shortening (clipped words, acronym) 􀂄 * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they diff

35、er? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? 􀂄 lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? 􀂄 institution-al 􀂄skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?

36、􀂄 to strength-en 􀂄 to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. Assignments􀂄 Distinguish the following terms: 􀂄 Open class words and closed class words􀂄 Bound morpheme and free morpheme􀂄 Inflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme

37、048708; List some rules of word formation4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rules􀂄 How do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morp

38、hology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence Structure􀂄 We know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the

39、 difference between well formed nonsense (1) and total gibberish (2) :􀂄 (1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. 􀂄 (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.􀂄 Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categories􀂄 Major lexical categories􀂄 N( Noun) book, boy &#

40、1048708; V(Verb) run, buy 􀂄 A(Adjective) happy, heavy􀂄 P (Preposition) about, in 􀂄 Minor lexical categories 􀂄 Det (determiner) the, a this􀂄 Deg (Degree word) quite, very 􀂄 Qual (Qualifier) often, always􀂄 Aux(Auxiliary) must, should h

41、8708; Con (Conjunction) and, but5. Three criteria for judging the words categories􀂄 1.meaning Nounentity 􀂄 2.inflection -ed, -s 􀂄 3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categories􀂄 Phrases are constructed out of a head plus other material into: Noun Phrase (NP) V

42、erb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complement􀂄 Head: the word around which a phrase is formed􀂄 Specifier: the words on the left side of the heads􀂄 complement: the words on the right side of the heads􀂄 E.g. a touching

43、 story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure Rules NP (Det)N (PP) VP (Qual) V ( NP) AP (Deg)A (PP) PP (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P 􀂄 XP (specifier) X (complement)10. X theory 􀂄 XP (specifier) X 􀂄 X - X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules 􀂄 X X Con X

44、12. XP rule (revised): 􀂄 XP (specifier) X (complement ) 􀂄 Matrix clause􀂄 Complement phrase (CP) 􀂄 Complement clause 􀂄 Complementizers (Cs)13. Modifier􀂄 AP 􀂄 PP 􀂄 AdvP 􀂄 The expanded XP rules 􀂄 XP (spec)(Mod) X

45、(complement*)(Mod)14. The S rule􀂄 S NP VP􀂄 Det N V P Det N | | | | | |􀂄 The cat is on the mat15. Transformational Rules􀂄 Once we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John

46、going to school?􀂄 What happened between (1) and (2)? Is moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree s

47、tructure generated by the phrase structure rules.􀂄 Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic component􀂄 Th

48、e XP rule􀂄 Deep structure􀂄 transformations􀂄 Surface structure18. Wh Movement􀂄 Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence􀂄 Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word Order􀂄 Recall that languages can choose the order of th

49、e constituents in a phrase structure rule. English: PP P NP Japanese: PP NP P20. SVO􀂄 We can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO. There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S NP VP S VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP V NP VP NP V21. Assignments

50、48708; Draw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of Meaning􀂄 Everyday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)􀂄 (1) Daddy, what does unique mean? (2) When Mary talks about her e

51、x she means me.(3) Purchase means the same as buy. (4) Gwailou means foreign devil.(5) When he drinks it means hes depressed. (6) I didnt mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards The Meaning of Meaning (1923)􀂄 sixteen different meanings of the words mean/meaning were distinguished. Here are s

52、ome of them:􀂄 John means to write. intends􀂄 A green light means go. indicates Health means everything. has importance􀂄 His look was full of meaning. special import􀂄 What is the meaning of life? point, purpose􀂄 What does capitalist mean to you? conveyh

53、8708; What does cornea(角膜)mean? refer to in the world4. What does meaning mean in linguistics? 􀂄 It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are u

54、sed in specific contexts (meaning is not some kind of entity separate from language - any more than measures such as height or length have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, s

55、tressed its importance in his dictum: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.5. 4 views concerning the study of meaning􀂄 The naming theory 􀂄 The conceptual theory 􀂄 Contextualism 􀂄 behaviorism6. The naming theory􀂄 Plato 􀂄Words are names

56、 or labels for things.􀂄 Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theory􀂄 Ogden & Richards Triangle􀂄 THOUGHT (concepts

57、, images, schemas)/ (Sense) / / (language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)􀂄 Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notion􀂄 What is the link between the language and concept?8. Contextualism􀂄 Ludwig Wittgenstein &

58、#1048708; Malinowski 􀂄 J.R.Firth􀂄 2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. Behaviorism􀂄 Bloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalism􀂄 Human and animal behavior􀂄 Stimulus and response􀂄 S - r . s - R Jack and Jil

59、l10. Lexical meaning􀂄 Sense and reference􀂄 Sense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;􀂄 Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.􀂄 Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;􀂄 Reference i

60、s concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words􀂄 1.synonymy 􀂄 2.polysemy 􀂄 3.homonymy 􀂄 4.hyponymy 􀂄 5.antonymy11.1. synonymy􀂄 two words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small ch

61、ange and little sister􀂄 a) dialectal synonyms􀂄 b) stylistic synonyms􀂄 c) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning􀂄 d) collocational synonyms􀂄 e) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemy􀂄 one word, many meanings􀂄 e

62、ye organ of sight, center of hurricane , hole in needle11.3.homonymy􀂄 different words, same sound􀂄 bear carry bear furry creature bare naked􀂄 cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow knotted ribbon bow front of ship11.4.hyponymy􀂄 superordinate

63、(hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponyms􀂄 Problematic superordinates:􀂄 aunt - uncle none sweet - sour - bitter Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch ? sitting furniture (Sitzmbel)11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(

64、3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentences􀂄 a) X is synonymous with Y􀂄 b) X is inconsistent with Y􀂄 c) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)􀂄 d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)􀂄 e) X is a cont

65、radiction?􀂄 f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaning􀂄 Componential analysis􀂄 Predication analysis􀂄 grammatical meaning􀂄 semantic meaning13.1 Componential analysis􀂄 Features in Semantic Theory􀂄 man = +human +adult +male woma

66、n = +human +adult +femalegirl = +human -adult +femaleboy = +human -adult +male􀂄 stool = +sitting +legs -back -arms +single personchair = +sitting +legs +back +/- arms +single personsofa = +sitting +/-legs +back +arms -single person etc􀂄 cow = +bovine +adult +female􀂄 ewe =

67、+ovine +adult +female bull = +bovine +adult +male􀂄 ram = +ovine +adult +male calf = +bovine - adult􀂄 lamb = +ovine -adult􀂄 But should calf = +/-female +/-male or simply unspecified?􀂄 And what about: steer? = +bovine +adult -male -female13.2Predication analysis􀂄 It is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a pre