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1、南京工程学院毕业设计外文资料翻译学生姓名：顾建祥学号：240095319班级名称：K建工ZB093所在院系：康尼学院UndergroundSpaceUtilizationThe rapid growth of world civilization will have a significant impact on the wayhumans live in the future. As the global populationincreases and more countriesdemand a higher standard of living, the difficultyofdoin

2、g this is compounded bythree broad trends: the conversion ofagriculturalland to development uses; theincreasing urbanization of the worldspopulation; and growing concern for themaintenance and improvement of theenvironment, especially regarding globalwarming and the impact of population growth. Unde

3、rground space utilization, as this chapter describes, offers opportunities for helping address these trends.By moving certain facilities and function underground, surface land in urban areas can be used more effectively , thus freeing space for agricultural and recreational purpose. Similarly, the u

4、se of terraced earth sheltered housing. Using underground space also enables humans to live more comfortably in densely populated areas while improving the quality of live.On an urban or local level, the use of underground facilities is rising to accommodate the complex demands of todays society whi

5、le improving the environment . For example, both urban and rural areas are requiring improvedtransportation, utility, and recreational services. The state of traffic congestion in many urban areas of the world is at a critical level for the support of basic human living, and it is difficult if not i

6、mpossible to add new infrastructure at ground levelwithout causing an unacceptable deterioration of the surface environment or an unacceptable relocation of existing land uses and neighborhoods.On a national level in countries around the world, global trends are causing the creation and extension of

7、 mining developments and oil or gas recovery at greater depths and in more inaccessible or sensitive locations. Three trends have also led to the developments of improved designs for energy generation and storage systems as well as national facilities for dealing with hazardous waste (including chem

8、ical, biological, and radioactive waste ), and improved high-speed national transportation systems .All these developments involve use of the underground .Land Use PressuresPlacing facilities underground is a promising method for helping ease land use pressures caused by the growth and urbanization

9、of the worlds population. Although the average population density in the world is not large, the distribution of population is very uneven. A map of population density in the world is not large ,areas of the world are essentially uninhabited . These areas are for the most part deserts ,mountainous r

10、egions, or regions of severe cold that do not easily support human habitation.If one examines China ,for example ,the average population density is approximately 100 persons per square kilometer, but the vat majority of the one billion-plus population lives on less than 20 percent of the land area.

11、this is the fertile land that can support food production. However, due to population growth, urbanization, and economic growth, this same land must now support extensive transportation systems, industrial and commercial development, and increasing demands for housing, As the population and economy

12、grow, the land available for agriculture shrinks, and the problems of transporting food and raw materials to an urban population increase. By the year 2000 it is estimated that 70 percent of the worlds population will inhabit urban areas.The same trend are evident in Japan, where approximately 80 pe

13、rcent of the land area is mountainous,90 percent of the population lives on the coastal plains, and economic development is concentrated in relatively few economic development is concentrated in relatively few economic centers .The flat-lying land is generally the most fertile and is historically th

14、e region of settlement . Other factors adding to population density include the traditional building style , which is low-rise , and Japanese law that contain strong provisions for maintenance of access to sunlight .Also ,to retain domestic food production capability , the Japanese government has pr

15、otected agricultural land from development. The combination of these historical and political factors together with a strong migration of businesses and individuals to the economic centers has created enormous land use pressure. The result is an astronomically high cost of land in city centers (as h

16、igh as US $500,00 persquare meter) and difficulty in an providing housing, transportation, and utility services for the population. Typical business employees cannot afford to live near the city center where they work and may have to commute one to two hours each way from an affordable area. To serv

17、ice the expanding metropolitan area, public agencies must upgrade roads and build new transit lines and utilizes. Land costs for such work are so high that in central Tokyo, the cost of land may represent over 95 percent of the total cost of a project.The problem of land use pressures and related ec

18、onomic effects of high land prices are of great interest in the study of the potential uses of underground space. When surface space is fully utilized, underground space becomes one of the few development zones available. It offers the possibility of the adding needed facilities without further degr

19、ading the surface environment. Without high land prices, however,the generally higher cost of constructing facilities underground is a significant deterrent to their environmental, or social grounds-luxuries which many developing nation cannot afford at present and which developed nations are reluct

20、ant to undertake except in areas of special significance.Planning of Underground SpaceEffective planning for underground utilization should be an essential precursor to the development of major underground facilities. This planning must consider long-term needs while providing a frame work for refor

21、ming urban areas into desirable and effective environments in which to live and work. If underground development is to provide the most valuable long-term benefit possible , then effective zones beneath public rights-of-way in older cities around the world. The tangled wed of utilizes commonly found

22、 is due to a lack of coordination and the historical evolution in utility provision and transit system development.The underground has several characteristics that make good planning especially problematical:Once underground excavations are made, the ground is permanently altered. Underground struct

23、ures are not as easily dismantled as surface buildings. An underground excavation may effectively a large zone of the stability of theexcavation.The underground geologic structure greatly affects the type, size, and costs of facilities that can be constructed, but the knowledge of a regions can only

24、 be inferred from a limited number of site investigation borings and previous records.Large underground projects may require massive investments with relatively high risks of construction problem, delay, and cost overruns.Traditional planning techniques have focused on two-dimensional representation

25、s of regions and urban areas . This is generally adequate for surface and aboveground construction but it is not adequate for the complex three-dimensional geology and built structures often found underground . Representation of this three-dimensional information in a form that can readily be interp

26、reted for planning and evaluation is very difficult.In Tokyo, for example, the first subway line (Ginza Line) was installed as a shallow line (10 meters deep) immediately beneath the existing layer of surface utilities. As more subway lines have been added, uncluttered zones can only be found at the

27、 deeper underground levels. The new Keiyo JR line in Tokyo is 40 meter deep. A new underground super highway from Marunouchi to Shinjuku has been proposed at a 50-meter depth. For comparison, the deepest installations in London are at approximately a 70-meter depth although the main complex of works

28、 and sewers is at less than 25 neters. Compounding these issues of increasing demand is the fact newer transportation services (such as the Japanese Shinkansen bullettrains or the French TGV) ofen require larger cross-section tunnels, straighter alignments, and flatter grades. If space is not reserv

29、ed for this type of use, very inefficient layouts of the beneath urban areas can occur.Environmental BenefitsAnother major trigger for under ground space usage is the growing international concern over the environment, which has led to attempts to rethink the future of urban and industrial developme

30、nt. The major concerns in balancing economic developmentversus environmental degradation and world natural resource limitations revolve around several key issues. These are:The increasing consumption of energy compared to the limited reserves of fossil fuels available to meet future demand.The effec

31、t on the global climate of burning fossil fuels.The pollution of the environment from the by-products of industrial developmentThe safe disposal of hazardous wastes generated by industrial and military activites.Preserving the environment from the by-products of industrial development economic growt

32、h and maintaining individual life styles will be complex if not impossible. However, a high standard of living and high gross domestic product do not have to be proportionately dependent on resource consumption and environmental degradation.Underground space utilization can help solve the environmen

33、tal/resource dilemma in several ways . Underground facilities are typically energy conserving in their own right. More importantly, by using addition to the obvious benefit of preserving green space and agricultural land, there is strong evidence that higher urban density can lower fuel resource con

34、sumptionThe Future of Underground Space DevelopmentAlthough existing underground facilities throughout the world provide some models for future development, they are all limited in scale, in their lack of a comprehensive vision for the total city environment. As a complement to more detailed plannin

35、g and research studies, it is useful to examine the visions of extensive underground complexes, even entire cities, that have been proposed by futuristic planners and designers.Geotech90, a conference and exhibition held in Tokyo in April 1990, was a major forum for the underground industry in Japan

36、. More than a dozen underground concepts were displayed, ranging from the typical transit and utility uses to underground corridors that are envisioned as places for a communication networkprotected during disasters. Such corridors could also effectively transport both waste and energy between subst

37、ations in the city and central generation and disposal sites outside the city. This approach not only relieves congestion but also can provide more efficient energy generation and recycling of waste materials. These conceptsare all intended to permit a major upgrade of the city infrastructure that w

38、ill eventually enable the surface to be rebuilt with more open space and a more efficient, attractive overall environment.When completely new cities are envisioned for the future, the underground often is a major component, as illustrated by the work of the architect Paolo Soleri over the last 30 ye

39、ars. In science fiction future cities often are depicted as self-contained, climate-controlled units frequently located underground for protection from the elements and possibly from a hazardous or polluted environment. In this case, underground cities on earth differ little from bases created on th

40、e moon or other isolated environments.地下空间的利用全球城市化进程的加快将会对人类将来的生存方式产生重大影响。 随着全球人口的增长以及更多国家要求提高生活水平， 世界必须提供更多食物， 能源以及矿物资源来维持此增长趋势。 解决这一难题的办法有三大渠道复合而成： 农业用地的保护从而得到更深入的利用； 日益增长的全球城市人口； 对保护和改善环境日益增长的关注， 特别是关于全球气候变暖以及人口增长带来的影响。 地下空间的利用，作为本章要描述的内容，将提供针对这些趋势的解决办法。通过将特殊器材设备置于地下， 城市地表可被更有效地利用， 这样就可释放出空间供农业和娱

41、乐使用。 类似的，在陡峭的山坡上使用阶地掩土住宅会有助于在多山地区保护宝贵的可耕平地。 利用地下空间也可以提高人们在人口高密集去的居住舒适度，改善生活质量。一城市或当地水准， 地下设施的利用正日益满足当今社会对于改善环境的需求。例如不论城市还是农村都需要提高运输， 实用以及娱乐服务。 世界上许多城市的交通堵塞问题已经处在满足人类基本生存需求的临界点上， 并且在不破坏地表环境的基础上不增加新设施或是不重新规划现有土地及周边地带上的建筑的基础上想要解决这一难题是十分困难的。以世界上许多国家的国家水平，全球化的趋势导致对煤炭，石油，天然气的开采已达到更深的地层以下， 触及更难以让人接受或是更敏感的区

42、域。这些趋势同样导致针对能源繁衍存贮系统以及用于处理危险废料（包括化学， 生物以及放射性废料）的国家设施设计的改善和提高，同样也改善了国家高速运输体系。所有这些发展均涉及地下工程。用地压力将设施置于地下是缓解由于世界人口增长所带来的城市化问题的一种有希望的办法。虽然世界平均人口密度并不大， 但人口分布却极不均匀。 世界人口密度图显示世界上大部分地方根本不适合居住。 这些大方大部分是沙漠山区， 或是极度严寒地带等人类不易居住区。以中国为例，平均人口密度大概是每平方公里 100 人，但是 10 亿多的绝大部分人口居住在少于 20%的国土上。这是那些可以提供粮食产品的肥沃土地。 然而，由于人口增长和

43、城市化， 这些土地同样要被用于创建更广阔的运输系统， 被用于工商业的发展， 以及日益增长的住房需求。 随着人口和经济的增长， 农业用地减少，向城市人口运送食物和原材料的问题日益增长。据估计，到 2000 年，世界人口的 70%将居住在城市。同样的问题在日本也很明显， 大约 80%的土地是山区， 90%的人口居住在海边平原经济发展集中在几个相关的经济中心。 平原通常是最肥沃的土地， 从历史上看也是人类的定居地。 其他附加于人口密度的因素包括： 传统低层的建筑模式，而且日本法律规定必须建造靠近阳光的坚固的维护设施。 同样，为了保护家庭粮食生产能力，日本政府保护农业用地。这些历史，政策因素导致大量商

44、业，个人向经济中心移民造成了巨大的土地使用压力。结果是市中心土地价格惊人昂贵（高达 50 万美圆 /平米）并且很难为人们提供住房，交通，设施服务。普通公司雇员无法承担住在他们工作的市中心附近而不得不搭乘公汽单程花 1.2 个小时从他们负担的起的住处到公司。 为了为日益扩大的大城市区域提供服务， 市政当局必须升级道路并且兴建新的交通线和设施。 东京市中心的土地价格如此昂贵以至于用于购买土地的花费可能会占到工程总花费的 95%。土地使用压力和由于高土地使用价格带来的相关经济影响使得对地下空间的潜在利用的研究变得相当有趣。当地表土地已被利用殆尽， 地下空间将变成可开发的区域之一。这为不需深度破坏地表

45、环境而附加需要设备提供了一种可能。虽然没有高额地价， 但是建造地下设施的高额花费将是地下空间利用的一大拦路虎。因为地下设施不具有经济竞争力，因此在考虑建造前必须在美学，环境或者是社会效应方面给予综合评估， 除非是一些有特殊标志性意义的设施否则将会造成现阶段国家无法承担或是很勉强承担的奢侈浪费。地下空间规划对地下空间利用的有效规划是发展地下设施的前奏。 这个计划必须是为长远考虑的，并根据人们理想的工作和居住环境重构城市建筑格局。 如果地下空间开发可以提供最具价值的长期效益， 那么对这些资源的有效计划就应得以实施。 不幸的是，在世界范围内， 靠公众权力来开发近地表空间已经太迟了。 紊乱的设施网络司

46、空见惯归咎于缺乏协调以及使用设施的历史性变革以及交通系统的发展。地下空间具有如此特征导致要做一个好的规则需要特别注意一些问题1.一旦开始地下开挖，土地将被永久改变。地下建筑不象表面建筑那样容易拆掉。2.开挖一片地下空间需要一大片土地作为开挖加固区。3.土地的地理构成极大地影响了地下设施的种类，形式以及开销。但现有关于地表建筑的知识仅有很有限的内容与此相关，因此需要查阅钻探资料和以前的记录。4.大型地下工程需要大量调查，涉及更大的建造问题，工期拖延以及预算超支等风险。5.传统规则技术主要侧重于对于城市地形区域的二维描述。这基本上仅适合地表及上部结构但并不适合建造在处于复杂三维地理环境中的地下结构

47、。用同一种模式来描述这种三维信息并立刻反映到规则评估中是件非常困难的事例如，在东京，第一条地铁（Ginza 线）是在现存地表层设施下作为一个影子工程线路（ 10m 深）建成的。随着填加更多的地铁线，在更深土层中才会发现比较规整的区域。在东京，新的KeiyoJR 线深达 40m。一条从 Marunouchi 到Shinjuku 的高速干线已被设计到50m 深。作为比较在伦敦最深的设施大约70m深，其主要复杂部分以及排水设施至少超过25m 综合日益增长的需要，有一个事实就是这类新型运输服务（例如日本的新干线子弹头列车或是法国的TGV ）通常需要大量交叉隧道，笔直的队列以及平坦性。如果地下空间不是此

48、类用途，那么城市下面将会产生非常无效率的布局。环境利益另一个利用地下空间的主要策略是全球日益增长的对环境问题的关注， 并导致人们重新考虑城市的将来和工业的发展。 在关注维持生态平衡和环境恶化以及全球有限的自然资源要考虑以下几个问题：1.日益增长的能源消费量相对于满足将来需求的有限矿物燃料的贮备2.由于燃烧矿物燃料对全球气候带来的影响3.工业副产品对环境的污染4.对于工业生产及军事演习产生的危险废物的安全处置在提高经济增长保持工业模式的同时保护环境， 延长地球上资源的寿命即使不是一个不可能的问题也是一个很复杂的问题。 无论如何，高生活标准和高国内生产总值（ GDP）不需要和资源的消耗和环境的恶化

49、程度成比例。地下空间的利用能从几种途径解决环境 /资源的窘境。地下设施以其自身特点成为一种典型的储能设施。 更重要的是， 通过地下空间的利用， 城市人口密度会提高但对环境的影响会减少。 相对于保护绿地及耕地等的明显好处， 附加于此的好处是 -有充分证据显示高城市密度可以减少矿物燃料的消耗。将来地下空间的发展虽然在全世界范围内现有的地下设施为将来地下空间的发展提供了一些范例，但他们都在尺寸上， 用途上或者对于城市整体环境缺乏考虑。 作为更佳细致规划和研究的补充， 未来的规划者和设计者已提出对大范围地下结构甚至从整个城市的角度综合考核，将是非常有用的。90 年代地理一个1990 年 4 月在日本举

50、行的研讨博览会，主要是一个关于日本地下工业情况的论坛。 一大堆关于地下的概念展示出来从典型的运输使用设施到展望中的用于灾难时刻保护通讯网络的地下走廊。这类走廊对于在城市地铁站和中心生产去附近以及市区外安置地点间运送废弃物和能源也十分有效。这一点不仅缓解了堵塞而且提供了更加有效的能源衍生和废物循环。这些概念都是针对城市建筑的升级， 将最终导致地表形成更开阔的空间以及更高效更吸引人的全局环境。当展望将来城市建设时，地下建筑会成为主要因素这是建筑师PaoloSoleri 在过去 30 年的幻想杰作。在科幻小说里，未来城市常被描绘成自我供养的，气候可控制的单位， 且常常位于地下以避免来自危险或环境污染等因素的侵袭。在这种情况下， 地球上的地下城市略不同于以月球或其他孤立环境为基础创建的城市。