电子商务 ： 战略

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1、E-Business (6): Strategy电子商务 (6): 战略战略Content 内容 First-mover issues先动者问题 Drivers of lock-in 锁定动因 Tippy markets, positive feedback倾斜的市场，正面的反馈 Demand-side vs supply-side economies of scale需求方与供给方的规模经济http:/ a first-mover have an advantage?先动者具有优势吗？Lock-in + positive feedback + high fixed costs = incre

2、asing returns锁定正面反馈高固定成本递增收益锁定正面反馈高固定成本递增收益Disadvantages of being the first to market首先进入市场的劣势Market may be poorly understood对市场的了解可能不够Product creation may be inefficient产品生产可能效率低下Product/service may be unreliable, unfamiliar产品/服务可能不可靠、不熟悉Market may not have enough demand as yet市场可能还没有足够的需求Nature of

3、 competition/substitutes may not be clear竞争/替代品本质可能还不够明朗So, when is speed advantageous?那么，什么时候速度才是优势？When the first mover can lock-in customers当先动者可以锁定客户When the size of ones customer base increases the value of the offer 当客户基础规模在一段时间内提高了产品/服务的价值When entry by competitors can be deterred by high fixe

4、d investments当高额固定投资能够制约竞争对手进入Also large market 还有-大型市场6-3Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览Computers计算机计算机Across brands: Mac to PC Buying new peripheralsBuying new software Converting all Mac files to PC-compatible files Learning how to use the new OS - getting used to the new UI, figuring out what the mouse d

5、oes when you right-click, double-click, what the control and function keys do. Finding a new support group品牌间：从品牌间：从Mac到到PC 购买新的外围设备购买新软件将所有Mac文件转换到PC兼容文件学习如何使用新操作系统熟悉新的用户界面，了解右击、双击时鼠标的作用，以及控制键和功能键的作用 找到新的“支持小组”Upgrade: any computer to any other Copying files, reinstalling software Shortcuts, bookma

6、rks,Getting used to the feel/layout of the new keyboard升级：从任何计算机到其他计算机升级：从任何计算机到其他计算机 复制文件、重新安装软件快捷键、书签熟悉新键盘的感觉/布局Automobiles汽车汽车Across brands: Honda to BMWFinding a new service shop Finding where to get spare parts Buying new accessories/toolkitAdapting to the new dashboard, figuring out where all

7、the controls, switches and levers are品牌间：从本田到宝马品牌间：从本田到宝马找到新的服务点找到零配件供应点购买新附件/工具包适应新仪表盘，了解所有控制件、开关和操作杆的位置Upgrade: any car to any other Getting license plates, registration, insurance, spending time at DMV/AAA Getting used to how the car drives (maybe this is a little less if you buy a car of the sam

8、e brand and model?)升级：从任何汽车到其他汽车升级：从任何汽车到其他汽车取得牌照，进行登记，购买保险，向机动车辆管理局/美国汽车协会进行咨询 熟悉“汽车如何驾驶”（如果购买的是同一品牌、同一型号，则或许就不必花太多时间）Switching computers vs cars 转换计算机与转换汽车6-4Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览Switching costs in the Mac-PC example MacPC例子中的转换成本Buying new peripherals (OS-specific)购买新的外围设备（针对操作系统）Buying new soft

9、ware (OS-specific)购买新软件（针对操作系统）Converting your Mac files to PC-compatible files (OS-specific)将所有Mac文件转换到PC兼容文件（针对操作系统） Learning how to use the new OS (OS-specific)学习如何使用新操作系统（针对操作系统）Finding a new support group (OS-specific)找到新的“支持小组” （针对操作系统）Switching from a HP to a Gateway PC从惠普转到Gateway个人电脑The pie

10、ce of the product that drives switching costs seems to get most of the margins导致转换成本升高的产品导致转换成本升高的产品“组件组件”看来获取了绝大部分利润看来获取了绝大部分利润Microsoft makes more money than HP when one buys a HP PC当消费者购买一台康柏个人电脑时微软赚取的利润要超过康柏6-5Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览转换成本：当客户从一家“供应商”转向另一家时所承担的成本 转换品牌 转换技术 转换销售商在此，成本不同于 价格差距 产品质量差距

11、高转换成本 锁定Price one can charge = (quality & competition adjusted price) + (switching cost)商家可以设定的价格商家可以设定的价格（质量和竞争调整价格）（转换成本）（质量和竞争调整价格）（转换成本）Switching cost: Cost borne by customer when switching from one supplier to another Switching brands Switching technologies Switching vendorsThe costs here are d

12、istinct from Differences in price Differences in product qualityHigh switching costs Lock-in 6-6Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览BrandSelection品牌选择Sampling试样Entrenchment稳住Lock-In锁定锁定6-7Sources of lock-in锁定的来源Type of Lock-InSwitching CostsContractual Commitment Compensatory damagesDurable purchase Replacement c

13、osts, complementary productsBrand-specific learningInterface learning, corporate re-trainingInformation and databasesCost of transfer, re-creation, imperfectionsSearch costs Cost of time, attention, uncertaintyLoyalty programsLost accumulated benefits 锁定类型锁定类型 转换成本转换成本合同约定 违约金持久购买 更换成本补充性产品特定品牌学习 界面

14、学习、公司再培训 转移成本、再创造、信息和数据库 不完善 时间、精力、搜索成本 不确定性成本忠诚度计划 累计利益丧失6-8Search Costs搜索成本动因动因确实找到新的供应商（精力、时间、评估）回避未知选择所引起的不确定性（失去根据经验所得的知识）锁定方式锁定方式客户花钱寻找供应商客户评估和了解供应商的质量客户为现有供应商支付溢价，使搜索成本与更高价格相抵使搜索成本与更高价格相抵 供应商战略供应商战略特别关注首次客户强调不确定性的减少强调不确定性的减少DriversActually finding new supplier (attention, time, evaluation)Ave

15、rsion to uncertainty from unknown alternatives (loss of knowledge gained from experience)Pattern of lock-inCustomer invests in finding a supplierCustomer evaluates and understands quality of supplierCustomer pays premium for current supplier, trading off cost of search against higher pricesSupplier

16、strategiesPay special attention to first-time customersHighlight reductions in uncertainty6-9Brand-specific training特定品牌培训动因动因学习如何使用产品培训员工锁定方式锁定方式客户花钱学习如何使用产品/界面客户精于产品的使用（与日俱增）客户坚持使用该产品以避免重新学习公司实现产品标准化以降低培训成本供应商战略供应商战略减少接纳的学习障碍减少接纳的学习障碍有意识地在产品中设计长期学习程有意识地在产品中设计长期学习程序序DriversLearning how to use produ

17、ctTraining employeesPattern of lock-inCustomer invests in learning to use product/interfaceCustomer becomes adept at usage (increases with time)Customer sticks with product to avoid re-learningCompany standardizes product to reduce training costsSupplier strategiesReduce learning barriers to adoptio

18、nConsciously design-in learning over time6-10Information and Databases信息与数据库动因动因转移特定产品的信息/文件/媒介 （实际转移、不完全转移、再创造）锁定方式锁定方式客户投资于产品客户收集特定产品的使用信息 （与日俱增）客户坚持使用现有产品以避免转移成本供应商战略供应商战略积极鼓励信息投资， 产品方便性及成本降低建立与竞争对手产品的界面DriversTransferring product-specific information/files/media (actual transfer, imperfect trans

19、fer, re-creation)Pattern of lock-inCustomer invests in productCustomer stores/gathers product-specific information with use (increases with time)Customer stays with existing product to avoid transfer costsSupplier strategiesActively encourage informational investment, offering convenience, cost redu

20、ctions in returnBuild interfaces to your competitors productsOffer free conversion tools6-11Lock-in: Microsoft Passport锁定：微软通行证So software lock-in,now informationlock-in6-12Lock-in: Microsoft Passport锁定：微软通行证6-13Lock-in: Microsoft Passport锁定：微软通行证6-14Lock-in: Microsoft Passport锁定：微软通行证6-15Summary Fi

21、rst mover particularly important if lock-in likely Lock-in is powerful, can be quantified Setting standards (VCRs) Profit margin related to lock-in Different sources of lock-in Weak: Loyalty, contractual Strong: Complementary assets (tangible: peripherals, other software, intangible: information and

22、 data), learning / search) Ex: Phone number switching vs handset switching Strategy to get to lock in Conversion (free tools) Convenience (Microsoft passport)6-16Managing lock-in管理锁定Attract the right customers吸引合适的客户吸引合适的客户Entrench them稳住他们稳住他们Leverage your installed base利用客户基础利用客户基础以高转换成本来孤立和瞄准购买者寻

23、找影响力范围较大的购买者（有联系、可靠）在客户设计中考虑使用的逐级方便性，信息投资强调不确定性的降低及投资的价值增加销售辅件，溢价服务（自己/合作伙伴）明智地出售有关客户基础的联系资料Isolate and target the buyers with high switching costsLook for buyers with a high sphere of influence (connected, credible)Design-in gradual ease of use, informational investments Highlight reductions in unc

24、ertainty, value from their investmentsUp-sell complements, premium services (own/partners)Sensibly sell access to your installed base6-17Positive Feedback: Overview正面反馈：概览正面反馈：正面反馈： 当一家企业获得成功时，它过去和现在的成功也注定了未来的成功成功自养、强者更强何时会这样：客户增加 - 单位成本降低（供应方规模经济）客户增加客户增加 - 网络网络扩大扩大 - 产品价值提高（需求方规模经济）产品价值提高（需求方规模经济）

25、具有需求方规模经济的产品更可能体现出正面反馈 如果正面反馈足够强，则会使单一企业或产品主导市场（赢者通吃）在有正面反馈的市场中引入新产品较为困难，因为需要克服“集体转换成本”Positive feedback: when a firm becomes successful, its past and current success make it likely to succeed in the futuresuccess feeds on itself, the strong get strongerWhen does this happen:More customers - lower u

26、nit cost (supply-side economies of scale)More customers - larger network - more valuable product (demand-side economies of scale)Products which have demand-side economies of scale are most likely to exhibit positive feedback. If the positive feedback is strong enough, it leads to a single firm or pr

27、oduct dominating the market (winner take all). Introducing a new product is difficult in a market with positive feedback, because of the collective switching costs that need to be overcome6-18PRODUCT A产品产品 APRODUCT B产品产品 BTippy markets倾斜市场6-19PRODUCT A产品产品 APRODUCT B产品产品 BTippy markets倾斜市场6-20Tippy

28、markets倾斜市场PRODUCT A产品产品 APRODUCT B产品产品 B6-21Tippy markets倾斜市场PRODUCT A产品产品 APRODUCT B产品产品 B6-22Tippy markets倾斜市场PRODUCT A产品产品 APRODUCT B产品产品 B6-23Tippy markets倾斜市场PRODUCT A产品产品 APRODUCT B产品产品 B6-24Tippy markets倾斜市场PRODUCT A产品产品 APRODUCT B产品产品 B6-25PRODUCT A产品产品 APRODUCT B产品产品 BTippy markets倾斜市场6-26

29、Scale Supply-side economies of scale High fixed cost, low marginal cost The more you sell, the higher the per-item profitIF NETWORK EFFECTS / POSITIVE FEEDBACK, THEN: Demand-side economies of scale Customers will chose product which already has many people Effect of Web / EB?6-27Demand-side economie

30、s of scale需求方规模经济w商品消费量增多 单位价值提高w网络效应、网络外延性w网络产品：显示出明显的网络外延性的产品number of users用户数量value to each user提供给提供给每位客户每位客户 的价值Linkages can be physical or virtual联系可以是实际的也可是虚拟的联系可以是实际的也可是虚拟的wMore units consumed higher value per unitwNetwork effects, network externalities wNetwork product: product that displa

31、ys significant network externalities6-28Demand-side economies of scale?需求方规模经济？ICQSMS6-29Sources of demand-side economies of scale需求方规模经济的一些源泉产品用于人际交流电话、传真机、电子邮件、Instant Messenger, ICQ价值取决于供应商/合作伙伴的数量在线交易平台价值取决于互补性资产的质量和多样性软件-操作系统： 视窗、 Mac操作系统、 Playstation媒体-设备： CD播放机价值依赖于用户制造内容的数量万维网、在线社区输出/信息需要被用户

32、共享Acrobat, Excel, Word, PowerPointProduct is for person-to-person communicationtelephone, fax machine, email, Instant Messenger, ICQValue depends on number of suppliers/partnersTrading exchangesValue depends on the quality and variety of complementary assetsSoftware-OS: Windows, Mac OS, PlaystationM

33、edium-device: CD playersValue relies on the volume of user-generated contentWWW, online communitiesOutput/information needs to be shared across usersAcrobat, Excel, Word, PowerPoint6-30Openness vs. Control 开放性与控制A firm benefits from producing a network product if it企业可以从网络产品生产中受益，只要：企业可以从网络产品生产中受益，只

34、要：Is the only supplier of the product (control) 企业是该产品的唯一供应商（控制）Tries to get a very large user base rapidly (openness)企业力图快速获取一个巨大的用户基础（开放性）However:然而：然而：Adoption is more rapid with open standards若实行开放标准，则产品普及会更快Profit margins are much higher with proprietary standards若实行专有标准，则利润率会更高Total value adde

35、d to industry行业的总增加值行业的总增加值Your share ofindustry value你的行业价值份额你的行业价值份额Control: Ensure high profit margins, face an uphill task of getting to critical mass控制：控制： 保证高利润率，面临一个达到保证高利润率，面临一个达到临界数量的艰巨任务临界数量的艰巨任务Openness: Facilitate rapid adoption, but face difficulty in keeping margins high 开放性：开放性： 有助于快速

36、普及，但在保持有助于快速普及，但在保持高利润率上存在困难高利润率上存在困难 Ideal?理想状态？6-31Strategy and the Internet战略与互联网用一张幻灯片来简要介绍波特理论从长期而言，获利能力取决于行业结构和竞争优势行业结构（和一般竞争者的获利能力）的形成取决于五大力量：进入壁垒行业内竞争的激烈程度供应商的议价能力买方（和渠道）的议价能力替代产品和服务的威胁竞争优势（和超常利润）的获得可以借助：经营效力产品差异化关注缝隙市场Over time, profitability is determined by industry structure and competit

37、ive advantageIndustry structure (and the profitability of the average competitor) are shaped by five forces:Barriers to entryIntensity of intra-industry competitionBargaining power of suppliersBargaining power of buyers (and channels)Threat of substitute products and servicesCompetitive advantage (a

38、nd above-average profits) can be attained by:Operational effectiveness Product differentiationNiche focus6-32The Internet and Industry Structure互联网与行业结构Bargaining power ofchannels end-users渠道渠道 最终用户最终用户的议价能力的议价能力Bargaining powerof suppliers供应商议价能力供应商议价能力Barriers to entry进入壁垒进入壁垒Threat of substitutes

39、替代品威胁替代品威胁Intra-industryrivalry行业内竞争行业内竞争低低 高高弱弱 强强弱弱 强强弱弱 强强low high小小 大大low highlow highlow high6-33Impact of reducing search costs降低搜索成本的影响reduce降低降低increase增强增强reduce?减弱减弱? increase增强增强increase?增大？增大？Bargaining power ofchannels end-users渠道渠道 最终用户最终用户的议价能力的议价能力Bargaining powerof suppliers供应商议价能力供

40、应商议价能力Barriers to entry进入壁垒进入壁垒Intra-industryrivalry行业内竞争行业内竞争Threat of substitutes替代品威胁替代品威胁6-34Impact of switching costs and lock-in转换成本和锁定的影响increase升高升高reduce减弱减弱reduce减弱减弱（in conjunction with higher concentration）（同时集中度升高）（同时集中度升高）reduce减弱减弱reduce?减小？减小？Bargaining power ofchannels end-users渠道渠道

41、 最终用户最终用户的议价能力的议价能力Bargaining powerof suppliers供应商议价能力供应商议价能力Barriers to entry进入壁垒进入壁垒Threat of substitutes替代品威胁替代品威胁Intra-industryrivalry行业内竞争行业内竞争6-35Impact of demand-side economies of scale需求方规模经济的影响Bargaining power ofchannels end-users渠道渠道 最终用户最终用户的议价能力的议价能力Bargaining powerof suppliers供应商议价能力供应商

42、议价能力Barriers to entry进入壁垒进入壁垒Threat of substitutes替代品威胁替代品威胁Intra-industryrivalry行业内竞争行业内竞争increase升高升高reduce减弱减弱reduce减弱减弱（in conjunction with higher concentration）（同时集中度升高）（同时集中度升高）reduce减弱减弱reduce减小减小6-36Barriers to Entry进入壁垒Examples例子Auctions拍卖Books/CD retailing图书/CD零售Enterprise software企业软件Musi

43、c production音乐制作需求方规模经济互补性合作网络扩大互联网驱动的纵向解体进入分销渠道更方便成本结构的变化（固定与可变）转换成本的变化（信息、学习、搜索）产品差异化水平的变化low high低低 高高Demand-side economies of scaleLarger networks of complementary partnerships Internet-enabled vertical disintegration Easier access to channels of distributionChanges in cost structure (fixed vs.

44、variable)Changes in switching costs (information, learning, search)Changes in level of product differentiation6-37Intra-Industry Competition行业内竞争例子 图书/CD 零售电子产品/个人电脑生产在线经纪需求方规模经济竞争对手数量以及他们的相对规模互联网驱动的纵向解体降低经营差异化平衡生产能力创造电子商务经营中的战略风险水平成本结构的变化（固定与可变）转换成本的变化（信息、学习、搜索）产品差异化程度的变化low high弱弱 强强Demand-side ec

45、onomies of scaleNumber of competitors, their relative sizeInternet-enabled vertical disintegrationReduction in operational differentiationSmoothing of capacity creationLevel of strategic stakes in e-commerce operationsChanges in cost structure (fixed vs. variable)Changes in switching costs (informat

46、ion, learning, search)Changes in level of product differentiationExamplesBooks/CD retailingElectronics/PC manufacturingOnline brokerage6-38Bargaining power of suppliers供应商的议价能力low high弱弱 强强Examples例子Auto manufacturing汽车制造Electronics retailing 电子产品零售Cell-phone/PDA manufacturing 手机/掌上电脑生产Demand-side e

47、conomies of scale需求方规模经济 Internet-enabled vertical disintegration互联网驱动的纵向解体Level of operational procurement search costs经营采购搜索成本水平Changes in switching costs (information, learning, search)转换成本的变化（信息、学习、搜索）Changes in component differentiation (standardization)组件差异化的变化（标准化）6-39Bargaining power of buye

48、rs买方的议价能力需求方规模经济（集体转换成本）相对企业的买方规模（需求集成效应）买方经营搜索成本水平转换成本的变化（信息、学习、搜索）产品差异化的变化 个性化、批量定制生产low high弱弱 强强Examples例子Mobshop (and Mercata) Mobshop (和Mercata)Energy procurement能源采购Online banking在线银行Electronics manufacturing Channels, complements电子产品生产渠道、辅件Demand-side economies of scale (collective switching

49、 costs)Buyer scale relative to firm (effects of demand aggregation)Level of operational buyer search costsChanges in switching costs (information, learning, search)Changes in product differentiationpersonalization, mass customization6-40Complementary or cannibalizing?互补还是鲸吞？首先进入市场的劣势对市场的了解可能不够产品生产可能

50、效率低下产品/服务可能不可靠、不熟悉市场可能还没有足够的需求竞争/替代品本质可能还不够明朗那么，什么时候速度才是优势？当先动者可以锁定客户当客户基础规模在一段时间内提高了产品/服务的价值当高额固定投资能够制约竞争对手进入还有-大型市场，可管理的危险Lock-in + positive feedback + high fixed costs = increasing returns 锁锁定正面反馈高固定成本递增收益定正面反馈高固定成本递增收益Disadvantages of being the first to marketMarket may be poorly understoodProdu

51、ct creation may be inefficientProduct/service may be unreliable, unfamiliarMarket may not have enough demand as yetNature of competition/substitutes may not be clearSo, when is speed advantageous?When the first mover can lock-in customersWhen the size of ones customer base increases the value of the

52、 offer over timeWhen entry by competitors can be deterred by high fixed investmentsAlso large market, manageable hazards6-41Does a first-mover have an advantage?先动者具有优势吗？Lock-in + positive feedback + high fixed costs = increasing returns锁定正面反馈高固定成本递增收益锁定正面反馈高固定成本递增收益10-2Disadvantages of being the fi

53、rst to market首先进入市场的劣势Market may be poorly understood 对市场的了解可能不够Product creation may be inefficient 产品生产可能效率低下Product/service may be unreliable, unfamiliar 产品/服务可能不可靠、不熟悉Market may not have enough demand as yet 市场可能还没有足够的需求Nature of competition/substitutes may not be clear 竞争/替代品本质可能还不够明朗So, when is

54、 speed advantageous? 那么，什么时候速度才是优势？When the first mover can lock-in customers当先动者可以锁定客户When the size of ones customer base increases the value of the offer 当客户基础规模能提高产品/服务的价值When entry by competitors can be deterred by high fixed investments当高额固定投资能够制约竞争对手进入Also large market 还有-存在大型市场6-42Lock-in: Ov

55、erview锁定：概览Computers计算机计算机Across brands: Mac to PC Buying new peripheralsBuying new software Converting all Mac files to PC-compatible files Learning how to use the new OS - getting used to the new UI, figuring out what the mouse does when you right-click, double-click, what the control and function

56、 keys do. Finding a new support group品牌间：从品牌间：从Mac到到PC 购买新的外围设备购买新软件将所有Mac文件转换到PC兼容文件学习如何使用新操作系统熟悉新的用户界面，了解右击、双击时鼠标的作用，以及控制键和功能键的作用 找到新的“支持小组”Upgrade: any computer to any other Copying files, reinstalling software Shortcuts, bookmarks,Getting used to the feel/layout of the new keyboard升级：从任何计算机到其他计算

57、机升级：从任何计算机到其他计算机 复制文件、重新安装软件快捷键、书签熟悉新键盘的感觉/布局Automobiles汽车汽车Across brands: Honda to BMWFinding a new service shop Finding where to get spare parts Buying new accessories/toolkitAdapting to the new dashboard, figuring out where all the controls, switches and levers are品牌间：从本田到宝马品牌间：从本田到宝马找到新的服务点找到零配件

58、供应点购买新附件/工具包适应新仪表盘，了解所有控制件、开关和操作杆的位置Upgrade: any car to any other Getting license plates, registration, insurance, spending time at DMV/AAA Getting used to how the car drives (maybe this is a little less if you buy a car of the same brand and model?)升级：从任何汽车到其他汽车升级：从任何汽车到其他汽车取得牌照，进行登记，购买保险，向机动车辆管理局/

59、美国汽车协会进行咨询 熟悉“汽车如何驾驶”（如果购买的是同一品牌、同一型号，则或许就不必花太多时间）Switching cars vs. switching computers 转换汽车与转换计算机6-43Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览Switching costs in the Mac-PC example MacPC例子中的转换成本Buying new peripherals (OS-specific)购买新的外围设备（针对操作系统）Buying new software (OS-specific)购买新软件（针对操作系统）Converting your Mac files

60、to PC-compatible files (OS-specific) 将所有Mac文件转换到PC兼容文件（针对操作系统） Learning how to use the new OS (OS-specific)学习如何使用新操作系统（针对操作系统）Finding a new support group (OS-specific)找到新的“支持小组” （针对操作系统）Switching from a HP to a Gateway PC从惠普转到Gateway个人电脑The piece of the product that drives switching costs seems to g

61、et most of the margins导致转换成本升高的产品导致转换成本升高的产品“组件组件”看来获取了绝大部分利润看来获取了绝大部分利润Microsoft makes more money than HP when one buys a HP PC 当消费者购买一台惠普个人电脑时，微软赚取的利润要超过惠普6-44锁定：概览转换成本：当客户从一家“供应商”转向另一家时所承担的成本 转换品牌 转换技术 转换销售商在此，成本不同于 价格差距 产品质量差距高转换成本 锁定Price one can charge = (quality & competition adjusted price)

62、+ (switching cost)商家可以设定的价格商家可以设定的价格（质量和竞争调整价格）（转换成本）（质量和竞争调整价格）（转换成本）Switching cost: Cost borne by customer when switching from one supplier to another Switching brands Switching technologies Switching vendorsThe costs here are distinct from Differences in price Differences in product qualityHigh s

63、witching costs Lock-in 6-45Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览BrandSelection品牌选择Sampling试样Entrenchment稳住Lock-In锁定锁定6-46Sources of lock-in锁定的来源Type of Lock-InSwitching CostsContractual Commitment Compensatory damagesDurable purchase Replacement costs, complementary productsBrand-specific learningInterface learnin

64、g, corporate re-trainingInformation and databasesCost of transfer, re-creation, imperfectionsSearch costs Cost of time, attention, uncertaintyLoyalty programsLost accumulated benefits 锁定类型锁定类型 转换成本转换成本合同约定 违约金持久购买 更换成本补充性产品特定品牌学习 界面学习、公司再培训 转移成本、再创造、信息和数据库 不完善 时间、精力、搜索成本 不确定性成本忠诚度计划 累计利益丧失6-47Search

65、 Costs搜索成本动因动因确实找到新的供应商（精力、时间、评估）回避未知选择所引起的不确定性（失去根据经验所得的知识）锁定方式锁定方式客户花钱寻找供应商客户评估和了解供应商的质量客户为现有供应商支付溢价，使搜索成本与更高价格相抵使搜索成本与更高价格相抵 供应商战略供应商战略特别关注首次客户强调不确定性的减少强调不确定性的减少DriversActually finding new supplier (attention, time, evaluation)Aversion to uncertainty from unknown alternatives (loss of knowledge g

66、ained from experience)Pattern of lock-inCustomer invests in finding a supplierCustomer evaluates and understands quality of supplierCustomer pays premium for current supplier, trading off cost of search against higher pricesSupplier strategiesPay special attention to first-time customersHighlight reductions in uncertainty6-48Brand-specific training特定品牌培训动因动因学习如何使用产品培训员工锁定方式锁定方式客户花钱学习如何使用产品/界面客户精于产品的使用（与日俱增）客户坚持使用该产品以避免重新学习公司实现产品标准化以降低培训成本供应商战略供应商战略减少接纳的学习障碍减少接纳的学习障碍有意识地在产品中设计长期学习程有意识地在产品中设计长期学习程