281.E论我国中小企业投资风险及防范措施 英文翻译

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1、XXX科技学院学生毕业设计（论文）外 文 译 文院（系） 经济管理学院 专业班级 会计学本科XXX级 学生姓名 XXX 学 号 XXX 译 文 要 求1. 外文翻译必须使用签字笔，手工工整书写，或用A4纸打印。2. 所选的原文不少于2万字印刷字符，其内容必须与课题或专业方向紧密相关，注明详细出处。3. 外文翻译书文本后附原文（或复印件）。译 文 评 阅评阅要求：应根据学校“译文要求”，对学生译文的准确性、翻译数量以及译文的文字表述情况等作具体的评价。指导教师评语： 指导教师（签字） 年 月 日译自：http:危机管理耶鲁大学 皮埃尔F.兰德里 副教授 危机管理文献开始成长是在在20世纪80年代

2、。该领域的性质使它适用交叉于多个学科，其研究兴趣的增长是由于一些世界事件，如切尔诺贝利，博帕尔和挑战者，这些都证明了危机管理的重要性，（米特罗夫，2001年） 。表3突出了其他一些重要的案例研究做为了一个危机管理的重点。在一定程度上由于这些研究，组织开始采取步骤计划和制定危机管理计划，但是在这范围内出现了相对较新的具有挑战性的问题，组织不知道去什么地方获取指导方针。起初，作者出版书籍是在他们经验的基础之上。随着时间的推移，研究人员和作者认为有必要去寻找更多的研究方向，比如通过案例研究分析建立在实例文献之上。然而，个案研究分析是在一个具体事件分析之上，其结果始终没有整合所有的学科。现存可用文献主

3、要是研究问题的深度和广度;但是，这不是通过组织的。这种在危机管理文献中缺乏结构的事实成为了改领域范围内的一个研究兴趣点。皮尔逊和克莱尔（ 1998年） ;米特罗夫（ 2001年） ;拉隆德（ 2007年） ;赫尔曼（ 1963年） ;以及米勒，罗伯茨，史密斯所写的文章和史密斯（史密斯和埃利奥特， XXX年）都明确指出，危机管理是一个相对较新的研究领域延并且伸跨多个学科，但是，其研究成果还尚未被所有学科整合。关键论点文献评论 文献回顾暴露出了反复出现在文献中的关键问题;但是，这类相同问题被证明难以进入主题。史密斯（ XXX ）说明了这些关键问题包括以上这些： “在文献中危机分析不是整齐地属于任何

4、特定的分析或理论的典范 实际上危机管理已开始挑战许多核心假设.掌握一些学科“ （第6页） 。评论文献证实，作为一个新兴的多学科领域，危机管理的的文献缺乏定义和结构。这种多学科性质的领域，构成进一步的问题。危机管理文献现存于轶事趣闻事件和个案研究为基础，因此，它缺乏概以具体案例背景之外的研究。史密斯回顾了现有的文献，并提出一种归纳按主题分类出有影响力作者所写作品的方法。为了更好的收集危机管理文献，一般按照关键主题定义有效的划分结构。这一章文献组合的提供最初是由史密斯和文学所提论点反映出的。进一步的回顾是提取不同类作者所重复的关键问题。其他部分的分析给出了定义并且集合了5个主题：（ 1 ）没有对违

5、纪管理文献结构进行分类，（ 2 ）定义危机及其管理，（ 3 ）将危机管理过程做成一种模型，（ 4 ）产生危机的原因，和（ 5 ）成功管理的关键。 这五个主题形成下列有关危机和危机管理的信息。危机管理是一个相对较新的，多学科的研究领域。它仍处于初级阶段，还没有和所有学科进行交叉整合。在这种情况下，目前还没有危机管理文献结构的分类。作为一个新兴领域的成果，已经定义了危机和他的管理。各个领域对 “危机” 的看法不同：每个领域已建立了一个工业，组织危机和和有效危机管理“工作定义”。此外，危机，灾害，风险等这几种形式是不可互换的。危机的表现是复杂的，紧贴合事件的战略性质。组织坚持一种信念，他们很容易受到

6、危机，因为危机是不可避免的，而且人类造成危机的频率在增加。 为了尽量了解危机，危机管理过程一直被做成一种模型，以帮助他们研究过程中系统和全面的分析。危机管理文献中的论点显示了各种类型危机的某些特征，并揭示了危机和组织易变性的关系。此外，危机是动态的，可能导致的连锁反应或涟漪效应，有阶段或阶段，并可能由不同因素造成。通过案例研究分析和实例证据，几个成功危机管理的关键因素已被定义。第一个关键是在于积极主动并制定危机管理计划。危机管理的一个基本规则是，只要准确预测危机就相当于没有危机发生。组织必须计划和准备意外事件的发生。他们必须能够回答的“ 如果 ”的问题。危机发出警告标志和信号检测是非常重要的。

7、危机不能考一个列出的清单所解决，但是可以根据以下一些步骤概述和一个框架或模式处理，并且成功的危机管理需要集中的管理。承诺在危机中有好处（通常意义上来说）和坏处（盲点）：很重要的是要确保该组织在不断解决正确的问题。组织文化和一个适当的心态是成功的危机管理很重要的因素。这可以通过组织的学习，这也是成功危机管理的关键因素。组织矛盾是一个有效地处理危机很难克服的关键障碍。危机沟通是很重要的，特别是所处各个层次的利益相关者，利益相关者在组织成功脱离危机中有很大的影响。最后，人类，或社会，这些元素在危机中会导致危机有一个情绪的影响，这些影响必须加以权衡，考虑，并适当予以讨论评论文献结论 各种文章对危机管理

8、领域的回顾都提出了一个现有危机管理文献可使用程度的赞赏。核心定义和 “危机”的比较都是为了说明在这个学科领域内所共同缺乏的东西。此外，还提供了对于前两次危机管理文献分内的评估。这表明，纵观这些文章，不同的作者在危机管理文献中着重不同的研究主题，但是，不管哪种研究领域，有影响力的作者分享了几个共同点。本章最后一节整合并抓住了开创性作者在危机管理方面的文献，以便提供三、四个问题的部分答案。首先，经常用于这个领域的关键术语已被定义，同时，要单独看待比较危机在各个学科领域中。一系列研究识别了有影响力的作者和文章也会被描述。最后，所有原有文献的共同点会被整合并提出。危机管理实际上就是企图消除技术上的失败

9、，同时发展正式的沟通系统，以避免或管理危机局势，是一种管理学背景下的边缘学科。危机管理包括技能和方法，要求我们去评估、了解和应对任何严重的局势，特别是从危机第一次出现的时刻到危机恢复过程的开始。史密斯和艾略特认为，“危机”一词经常被组织者使用，但“危机”一词到底是什么涵义还是一个争论的焦点 ，组织者经常用“危机” 与 “灾难” ， “经营连续性”和“风险“互换，尽管他们之间有不同，他们进一步解释说，“危机可以代表复杂和非线性的事件所产生的问题，并由那些负责处理危机的人员去尝试解决他们”。而进行企业间的联盟以降低风险增加抵抗风险能力。联盟可以是正式的也可以是非正式的，可以是短期的也可以是长期的。

10、一些公司正在寻找长期稳定的合作伙伴,并通过参与合资来提升他们在其特定行业的资历。同时,另外一些公司正在寻找一个非正式的合作伙伴来开发共同的市场。很多公司会通过获取各种各样的合作关系来建立其在市场中的特定地位。与其他公司建立联盟的最大的管理难题是要有共同的利润。周密的计划可以用来预测可能阻碍有效联盟的一些障碍。这些障碍可能是共享的信息和员工，他们可以加重财政负担，也可以分散财政负担。概述公司建立企业间联盟的原因有很多种。这些联盟可以是正式的也可以是非正式的,但都必须以某种方式为当事人带来利润。一些企业间联盟的形式可能是正式的,合法的合伙企业或合资企业。公司也可以通过合并和收购活动结盟。相互依靠的

11、公司可以在联盟中获得利润,如供应商可以加入汽车制造商的供应链。皮特斯和斯托姆 (2001，P9) 把战略联盟描述为“一种公司可以通过优势互补更有效地进入特定市场的方法，比联盟伙伴单独进入更有效率。”联盟也是公司避免风险的一种方法，这些风险包括不可预见因素、技术和市场风险。戴尔和纱辛 (2001),称战略联盟是“一个快速、灵活的方式来获得存在于其他公司的互补资源和技能获得可持续竞争优势的一个非常重要的工具。”这些益处和其他的一些益处可以解释为什么这么多的公司从事各种各样的联盟。戴瑞特 (2001年,p.37)指出,“全球500强的生意中平均每种都有60个重大的战略联盟。”然而,大约一半的战略联盟

12、都宣告失败。经营企业联盟的理由最佳实践联盟之所以会发生,是因为一家公司拥有另一家公司需要的技术或这家公司有最好的经验可以使另一家公司节省资金。例如,许多网络公司与特定的货运公司联盟,如联邦快递或UPS,因为这些公司已被公认为货运行业的专家。也许网络公司对自己的生意很专业，但它卖的商品必须通过货运,在货运方面可能没有最优秀和最有效的方式。相似的,亚马逊已经成为精通销售网络,建立在线信用的大型网络公司。亚马逊的市场允许销售商与自己结盟，使用亚马逊网站强大的在线系统来吸引顾客,为顾客提供产品的销售和迅速的送货服务。亚马逊也被证实,它知道如何在网络上保护客户的个人信息。许多网上购物者都不太愿意店到一家

13、他们以前没有光顾过的网络公司购物。然而,亚马逊网站成立了一个系统的跟踪订单,如果顾客通过由市场上亚马逊的销售商订的货有问题，就可以访问亚马逊的客户服务系统。联盟能使公司更快地将产品推向市场。一个公司可能会与另一家公司合伙研发并共用彼此的发展经验。或者,在同一地区开发产品的公司可以连结他们的资源来更快地开发更好的产品。有些产品跨越不同的领域,使其在不同行业寻求合作伙伴变得很重要。例如,一家电脑公司可能与一家电信公司在有计算能力的电话产品上合作。互利联盟之所以会发生，是因为一个公司有另一个公司想要的东西，并且联盟后他们可以为有关各方创造更多的机会。例如,一家小公司可以提供一种服务,但可能需要帮助来

14、宣传他们的这种服务。这家小公司可以与一个知名的提供类似服务或甚至是不同服务的公司合作来达到目的。这种类型的联盟只能维持很短的一段时间。一家公司可能开发出一个自我完善的产品或服务,并且需要产生领导地位。这家公司可能会意识到像斯蒂芬群的公司和唐纳德特朗普的 公司会在自我提升中来吸引人们的兴趣。这家小公司就可以通过与在自我完善等方面很成功的大公司联盟来将自已放置到大量的目标观众面前，而不必自己来完成这一目的。较大的公司可以通过提供另一种其他人创造的产品,让顾客有另外一个理由来光临本公司网站。解决问题,有时联盟是通过分担和解决集体的问题而形成的。例如,一些小的生产厂家在美国可能通过结盟来缓解从中国而来

15、的生产厂商的竞争。在这种类型的联盟的公司会一起工作来分享彼此的想法或甚至通过联合努力在适当的海外开设工厂。这些公司能够融合识别联合采购机会或者决定他们作为一个团队会如何游说政府来获得帮助。同样,技术供应商可能形成一个联盟,以确保技术开发接近公开的技术标准,从而确保产品是合格有用的。如果公司的产品遥遥领先同行业的产品,但却不能与顾客普遍拥有的系统硬件、软件及设备兼容,那么这种先进的产品就不是很有用。工艺的产品装有非常先进的技术,并配有专有的硬件和软件,但最终还是以失败告终,因为它缺乏互用性不能与其他产品配合使用。联盟组织一个被称作引证公司联盟的非盈利组织主张在英国进行一些小公司的联盟(宾汉姆,X

16、XX)。公司可能会加入像这样的联盟以获得代表他们的利益的一个统一的声音。只要他们在他们同盟关系的真正利益上保持足够的关注，像这样的联盟组织就一定会成功。皮特斯和斯托姆(2001)给出商业上战略联盟的形式，包括“合同关系、有限责任合伙关系,一般的合作伙伴关系,或者合资企业关系,或不那么正式的形式关系,如职业分配咨询网。”联盟是公司间互惠互利的伙伴关系。联盟的管理联盟关系形成后，联盟间管理就要马上开始。在联盟正式形成之前,公司有需要做大量的规划直到联盟正式形成。联盟的当事人作为审查过程，会与对方交换信息、财务等等。当事人根据关系的深度需要签署保密协议并且企业双方内部的信息将会被共享。每一方必须管理

17、和分析信息资源并管理资源的部署和配置。当联盟的双方最终都得到了利润，联盟就达到了目的。经营战略联盟要求对联盟关系的不断监测来确定它是否仍然是有效的。收集联盟成本的数据也是一个因素来验证联盟是否还是非常有效。每隔一段时间评估将有助于双方确定联盟关系是否应该继续，如果真是这样,将以何种方式进行。及时跟进行业的业务活动，地区可以为哪些公司是最有吸引力的战略联盟合作伙伴提供线索,也可以为哪些公司对这种类型的联盟关系达到成熟的时机提供线索。联盟的价值时间可以花费企业的资金。开发的产品和服务所花费的时间,训练员工所花费的时间和获取并说服顾客购买所花费的时间，都是昂贵的。联盟的价值体现在可以节约成本和时间并

18、引导公司才进入下一阶段的发展。战略联盟的过程戴尔特(2001)研究了200个业务，发现他们参与了1572个联盟。一个每个联盟股票价格上涨了1%的公告被贴出，这意味着 “每个联盟在市场上都获得了5400万美金的利润”(戴尔,2001,p.37)。戴尔特也指出了一些公司比其他公司能更有效地创造价值,这些公司都特别的成功,因为在他们的组织结构中,有一个专门的战略联盟的功能。这个专门的功能可以为公司的员工提供培训,提高员工在公司内部的能力来判断战略联盟。北电、贝尔南方摩托罗拉公司为员工提供对联盟方面强化的培训。成功的联盟公司致力于识别和分析单位战略联盟的机会能取得更大的成功,这是因为他们战略的制度。戴

19、尔(2001年,p.38)报道,“有专门的功能的企业能够实现长期高于没有从事制度分析联盟的公司25%的成功率。”一个专门的战略联盟的功能也有助于公司对过程变得更加熟悉,并且增加了对战略联盟公司内部有用知识的学习。专门的资源也要花足够的时间来评估联盟的发展和结果。增加的知识能够帮助公司设计战略联盟每一过程的战略和战术。匹兹堡大学的医学中心参与了成像联盟，传达先进的技术来治疗癌症。医疗中心从联盟中获得了几项好处。首先,该中心得到机会将成熟的技术商业化并将技术转售给没有晚期癌症技术的医院。第二,公司只作了20%的金融投资,但将获得50%的控制权(贝克,XXX)。此外,医疗中心有16家医院和42个国家

20、癌症研究中心,有机会定期地使用和开发治疗癌症的方法。合伙企业为医院的技术提供了一个流通网络。放射治疗设备的市场价格被认为是200亿美元,并不是所有的医院都能买得起的这种设备。联盟需要一个公司不应简单地因为要做大或防止竞争而进入联盟。要找到真正的价值意味着相关公司必须有真正的需要。地理利益就是联盟特殊需要的一个很好的例子。玛格兰半导体是一家位于加州的半导体制造商有需要将业务扩大到全球各地（电子新闻，XXX)。在外资企业战略联盟,可能包括找本地的人来管理公司或在国外设立子公司来帮助公司做生意。其他策略是如果一家公司想要出现在另一个国家，可与已经成立的分销商联盟，利用当地国家的知识来建立一家公司。联

21、盟最大的一个好处是能够得到更多的客户以降低自己的风险。越来越多的客户能以一个新的角度来看你的行业和公司，公司就可以关注这些潜在的顾客的需求。一个金融服务公司选择一家制药公司成为合作伙伴来获得更多的客户。通过与制药公司的合作,金融服务公司在医药行业和其他可能需要金融服务需求的行业得到宣传和认可。 Crisis managementbyPierre F. LandryAssociate ProfessorYale UniversityCrisis management literature began to grow in the 1980s. The nature of the field ma

22、de it applicable across multiple disciplines and interest grew as world events such as Chernobyl, Bhopal, and the Challenger proved the importance of crisis management (Mitroff, 2001). Table 3 highlights a few other significant case studies done with a crisis management focus. Partly because of thes

23、e studies, organizations began taking steps to enact programs and develop crisis management plans, but the relatively new emergence of the field made this challenging as organizations were unaware of where to go for guidance. Initially, authors published books based on their experiences. Over time,

24、researchers and authors capitalized on the need for more guidance, by building on the anecdotal literature through case study analysis. However, the case study analysis was done with a discipline-specific bias and results have not been synthesized across all the disciplines. The resulting available

25、literature is far reaching in breadth and depth; however, it is not organized. This lack of structure within the crisis management literature has been an interest item with in the field. Pauchant and Douville (1992); Mitroff (2001); Lalonde (2007); Hermann (1963); as well as articles written by Shri

26、vastava, Miller, Roberts, Smith, and Smith (Smith XXX) have all articulated that crisis management is a relatively new field of study extending across multiple disciplines, and that efforts across all disciplines have not been synthesized.Key Themes from the Literature Review The literature review e

27、xposed key, recurring commonalities within the literature; however, a classification of these commonalities into themes proved difficult. Smith illustrated this key concern above: “The analysis of crises does not fall neatly within any particular analytical or theoretical paradigm in the literature.

28、the practice of crisis management is beginning to challenge many of the core assumptionsheld within some disciplines” (p. 6). A review of the literature confirmed that. As an emerging and multidisciplinary field, crisis management literature lacks definition and structure. The multidisciplinary natu

29、re of the field poses a further problem. The crisis management literature as it now exists is both anecdotal and case study based; therefore, it lacks generalizability to contexts outside those of the specific cases studied (Pauchant & Douville, 1992). Smith (XXX), reviewed existing literature and p

30、resented methods of organizing the works of seminal authors along major themes. In order to best capture crisis management literature, it was most effectively structured by identifying key themes. The synthesis of literature provided in this chapter was initially done mirroring the themes provided b

31、y Smith and Elliott (XXX). Further review allowed for the extraction of key statements repeatedly proposed by different seminal authors. Additional analysis of these statements enabled the identification and grouping of five major themes: (1) no structure with crisis management literature for taxono

32、my, (2) defining crisis and its management, (3) modeling the crisis management process, (4) the causes of crisis, and (5) keys to successful management. These 5 themes formed the following information about crises and crisis management. Crisis management is a relatively new and multidisciplinary fie

33、ld of study. As it is still in its infancy efforts across all disciplines have not been synthesized. In such there is currently no structure within crisis management literature for taxonomy. As an emerging field efforts have been made to define crisis and its management. Various fields view crisis d

34、ifferently: Each field has established a working definition of industrial, organizational crisis and or effective crisis management. Further, the terms crisis, disaster, risk, etc. are not interchangeable. Crises have been shown as complex, tightly coupled events that are strategic in nature. Organi

35、zations hold to a belief that they are vulnerable to crises, as crises are inevitable, and human-caused crises have increased in frequency.In an effort to understand crises, the crisis management process has been modeled, to aid in their systematic and holistic analysis. Themes within crisis managem

36、ent literature show types of crises with certain characteristics, and reveal relationships between crisis and organizational variables. Additionally, crises are dynamic, can result in a chain reaction or ripple effect, have stages or phases, and can be caused by different factors. Through case study

37、 analysis and anecdotal evidence, several keys to successful crisis management have been identified. A key lies in being proactive and having a crisis management plan. A cardinal rule for crisis management is that no crisis occurs exactly as predicted. Organizations must plan and be prepared for the

38、 unexpected. They must be able to answer what if questions. Crises give off warning signs and signal detection is important. Crises cannot be addressed by a checklist, but can be handled by following certain steps as outlined by a framework or model, and successful crisis management requires central

39、 management. Commitment in a crisis is good (generates meaning) and bad (blind spots): Its important to ensure the organization is continually solving the correct problem. Organizational culture and an appropriate mindset are important to successful crisis management. This can be done through organi

40、zational learning, which is important to successful crisis management. Organizational denial is a key barrier for organizations to overcome in order to effectively manage crises. Crisis communications are important, specifically to stakeholders on all levels, as stakeholders can have an affect in or

41、ganizational success in crises. Lastly, the human, or socio-, element within a crisis results in crises having an emotional effect that must be weighed, considered, and appropriately addressedConclusions from Literature Review Review of various works within the field of crisis management provided an

42、 appreciation for the extent of crisis management literature available. Key definitions and a comparison of “crisis” were provided in order to demonstrate the lack of consensus among disciplines and within the field. Additionally, assessments of two previous attempts at crisis management literature

43、taxonomy were provided. This revealed that throughout the readings different authors focused on different research themes within the crisis management literature; however, regardless of the fields of study, seminal authors shared several commonalities. The final section in this chapter synthesizes a

44、nd captures the works provided by the seminal authors in crisis management literature in order to provide partial answers to research goals three and four. First, key terms frequently used within the field are defined and a separate look at comparing “crisis” across disciplines is provided. A listin

45、g of research identified seminal authors and influential works will also be outlined. Finally, the commonalities across all reviewed works have been synthesized and are presented.The practice of crisis management involves attempts to eliminate technological failure as well as the development of form

46、al communication systems to avoid or to manage crisis situations (Barton, 2001), and is a discipline within the broader context of management. Crisis management consists of skills and techniques required to assess, understand, and cope with any serious situation, especially from the moment it first

47、occurs to the point that recovery procedures start.Although the term “crisis” is frequently used by organizations, there is some debate as to what it means (Smith & Elliot, XXX), and organizations often use the terms “crisis”, “disaster”, “business continuity”, and “risk” interchangeably, despite th

48、eir differences (Smith & Elliot, XXX). Smith & Elliott (XXX) further explain that “crises are represented as complex, non-linear events that generate problems for those who are responsible for attempting to manage them”Companies may engage in inter-firm alliances in order to obtain something of valu

49、e. The specific value may be financial, expertise or market position. Alliances can be formal or informal and can be short or long term. Some companies are looking for a long term partner and may engage in joint ventures in order to boost their qualifications for certain types of business. Meanwhile

50、, others are looking for an informal partnership for the purpose of joint marketing. Some companies will acquire various entities to create a certain position in the market. The biggest management challenge in setting up an alliance with another firm is upfront planning. Advanced planning can be use

51、d to anticipate possible obstacles to effective alliances. Some of these obstacles can be in the sharing of information and staff, which entities will shoulder the financial burden, or how the financial burden will be distributed. Companies may turn to inter-firm alliances for many reasons.These all

52、iances may be formal or informal but in some way provide benefits for the parties involved. Some of the inter-alliances may be in the form of formal and legal partnerships and joint ventures. Companies may also align through merger and acquisition activity. Companies that are dependent on each other

53、 such as suppliers in an automobile manufacturers supply chain may find value in alliances. Pietras and Stormer (2001, p.9) described strategic alliances as “a way for companies with complementary strengths to enter a given market more effectively and efficiently than either alliance partner could m

54、anage alone.” Alliances can be a way for companies to avoid risk due to unforeseen factors, technology or market risk. Dyer, Kale, and Singh (2001) called strategic alliances “a fast and flexible way to access complementary resources and skills that reside in other companies - an important tool for

55、achieving sustainable competitive advantage.” These benefits and others could explain why so many companies engage in alliances of all kinds. Dyer et al (2001, p.37) noted that “the top 500 global businesses have an average of 60 major strategic alliances each.” However, about half of strategic alli

56、ances fail.Reasons for AlliancesBest PracticesAlliances can take place because one company may have technology that another needs or may have demonstrated best practices in an area that can save a company money. For example, many online companies align themselves with specific shipping companies suc

57、h as FedEx or UPS because these companies have demonstrated expertise in shipping. Online companies that sell merchandise that must be shipped may be experts in their business but may not be experts in the best and most efficient ways to ship. Similarly, online giant A has become proficient in selli

58、ng online and has built credibility online.The A marketplace allows vendors to align themselves with A using the online giants proven system for getting customers, selling products and delivering those products quickly. A has also proven that it knows how to protect customer personal information onl

59、ine. Many online shoppers are reluctant to shop with a company they have not done business with before. However, A has set up a system for tracking orders and allows customers to access its customer service system if there are problems with an order sold through A by a marketplace vendor. Alliances

60、can help companies get a product to market faster. One company may partner with another company with research and development expertise. Or, companies that are working in the same area of product development may pool their resources to complete a better product faster. Some products cross different

61、fields making it important to find partners in the different industries needed. For example, a computer company might partner with a telecommunications company on a phone product with computer capabilities.Mutual BenefitAlliances usually take place because one firm has something that another wants a

62、nd jointly they can create opportunities for all parties involved. For example, a small company may offer a service but may need help in getting the word out about that service. The small company may partner with a well known company that offers a similar service or even a different one. This type o

63、f alliance may only be needed for a short period of time. A company may develop a self improvement product or service and may need to generate leads. The company may be aware that companies like Stephen Coveys CoveyL or Donald Trumps TrumpU attract people interested in self improvement. The smaller

64、company may align themselves with these giants in self improvement to be positioned to target a large audience without having to build that list on its own. The larger company may benefit by being able to offer another product that someone else created giving customers another reason to visit the company website.Problem SolvingSometimes alliances are formed to solve the joint problems that groups of companies share. For example, small manufacturers in the U.S. may form an alliance to address manufacturing competition from China