刍议英语委婉语的起源及其社会交际功能

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1、刍议英语委婉语的起源及其社会交际功能 Abstract Euphemism, as a common linguistic phenomenon in world culture, is widely used in every social class and field. English euphemism, as one of many euphemisms existing in the world, has its own deep origin, which include both the religious origin and the historical, literary

2、 origin. This thesis will try to discuss the origin of English euphemism from every aspect of religion, race, politics, literary, and history. Language reflects life, and is always closely related to the society. During the communication, due to some certain restriction of behavior and morality, peo

3、ple tend to use euphemismused as a kind of lubrication, making the harsh, indelicate words sound tactful and pleasant. English euphemism plays a very important role in peoples social communication. This paper will also expound the social communicative function of English euphemism from the three asp

4、ects: evasive function, polite function, and cosmetic function. Having a good understanding of the origin and social function of English euphemism and the English language culture can avoid many conflicts in the process of social communication.Key Words origin; communicative function; evasion; cosme

5、tic function; politeness【摘 要】 委婉语是世界文化中普遍存在的语言现象，它广泛应用于社会各阶层和领域。英语委婉语作为众多委婉语中的一种，具有其产生的深厚渊源，其中包宗教与政治的，也包括文学与历史的。本文试图从宗教、种族、政治、文学、历史等方面入手来探讨英语委婉语的产生渊源。语言反映生活，并且总是和社会紧密联系在一起，在语言交谈中，由于一定的行为规范和道德准则的制约，人们通常使用委婉语-这一“润滑剂”，使刺耳，不文雅的话变得委婉愉悦。它在人们的社会交际过程中发挥着重要作用。本文从其避讳功能、礼貌功能以及掩饰功能三方面阐释了英语委婉语的社会交际功能。通过充分理解英语委婉语

6、的起源及其社会交际功能，进一步理解英语语言文化，以避免社会交际中的各种冲突。 【关键词】起源; 交际功能; 避讳; 礼貌; 掩饰1.IntroductionEuphemism is a cultural phenomenon as well as a linguistic concept. Every language has its own euphemism, so does English. It is deeply rooted in social life and has a great influence on social communication. As an indispe

7、nsable and natural part of English language, English euphemism has attracted peoples attention for a long time. Since Euphemism was coined, it has played a very important role in peoples communication. The communication without euphemism is unimaginable. Euphemism is used like lubrication, which mak

8、es the communication go on smoothly. This thesis will have an overview of the origin of English euphemism, and state its social communicative function.English euphemism as a linguistic concept, it has close relationships with the western culture, and it truly reflects the life and values of English

9、people and their history. Euphemism is a particularly good medium for access to the force of language that has provided an effective approach to understanding the human mind. The study of English euphemism can help us understand the western culture and promote the international development because e

10、uphemism is widely used in international negotiations. So there is a great need for us to study English euphemism, including: its origin, its social function, etc.2. The definitions of English euphemismEuphemism is a universal linguistic phenomenon. Nearly in every language, there are some disgustin

11、g words, which make people feel embarrassed. In the process of communication, the unsuitable or too direct words will make people feel uncomfortable, even angry. Then there is a great need for us to use a tactful way to express emotion, exchange ideas. That is to say, to use a pleasant, mild or indi

12、rect words or phrases take the place of tabooed words.It is known that euphemism is a form of language intentionally created in social relation to achieve ideal communication. Without them any language would seem to be vulgar and rude, void of politeness and vividness to some extent. As a common com

13、munication in the process of people using language, euphemism is an important way for people to coordinate the social relationships. Like a kind of lubrication, euphemism enables people to express what cannot be uttered directly and ensures communication to be carried smoothly. It is a language stra

14、tegy in civilized society for avoiding taboo. It is unimaginable if the communication is without euphemism.The word “euphemism” was derived from the Greek word “euphemismos”, which means “fair speech”. The prefix “eu” means “good, sound well” and “pheme” means “saying” or “speech”. And thus the lite

15、ral meaning of “euphemism” is “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”. That is to say, euphemism is used as an alternative to unpleasant expression, in order to avoid possible lose of face, either ones own face or through going offense, that of the audience, or some of third of party. Thi

16、s unpleasant expression may be tabooed, fearsome, or for some other reasons that speakers cant or intend not to use some certain expression directly on some occasion. “In Websters Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language is the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression

17、for one thought substituted. Rawson Blunt, a British writer, defined euphemism as a good favorable interpretation of a bad word.”1 “Encyclopedia Britannica(1994) also defines euphemism as a figure of speech in which something of an unpleasant, distressing or indelicate nature is described in less of

18、fensive terms”2 From the above mentioned, we could clearly see that euphemism is characterized by avoidance language and evasive expression. The speakers use words or expressions as a protective shield against the anger or disapproval of natural or supernatural things. It is one form of language and

19、 a linguistic phenomenon 3.The origins of English euphemism3.1 The religious origin of English euphemismThe earliest English euphemisms come from “taboo”. The word “taboo” comes from Togan, a kind of Polynesian. It indicates evasive language or action.3 The emergence of English euphemism is to meet

20、the need of avoiding taboos. In primitive society, people cant explain such things as ailment and some supernatural phenomena. “People have confusion between the name of the things and things themselves. The name is viewed as an extension of things. Just as the idiom says Speak of devil and he appea

21、rs. Naturally the words or phrases related to such things become taboos.”4 In the ancient times, people had blind faith in ghosts and Gods they respected. They whispered and even feared them so they did not dare to address their names directly. They think it profane to name God. Therefore the names

22、of gods become the earliest taboos. To speak name of gods was to evoke the divinity whose power then had to be confronted. Such dangerous practices were reserved for priests skilled in negotiating with the supernatural. So the usual way to avoid is to employ euphemisms. Therefore, for the religious

23、need, a lot of euphemisms about religion emerged. For example, in order not to desecrate God, people in English-speaking country always use some other name for God instead of calling directly, such as “Adonai, the Almighty, Caesars Cruth, the Creater, Dod, Gad, Land, Lawks, Lawd.”5 The opposite side

24、 of god is devil, which is more terrible for people. When people refer to them, they tend to use such euphemisms to replace: D, the Big D, the Evil one, the Black one, the Goodman, Jesse, Old boy, Our father, Lord of lords, King of kings, the Light of the world, etc.6 From the above mentioned, we ca

25、n find that religion brings many euphemistic terms in the religious matter, especially the naming and addressing of God to the language.3.2 The racial and national origins of English euphemismIt is known to all, the phenomenon of racial discrimination is deeply rooted in America in which “equal oppo

26、rtunity” is flattered by American white people as an equal right enjoyed by everyone. Due to the pressure of social public opinion, although some whites discriminate the black from their heart, they will not expose this kind of prejudice in public. Meanwhile, few people dare to humiliate and persecu

27、te blacks publicly for no reason at all. In other words, the way of discrimination becomes tactful. There are many euphemisms emerging for this reason. In the 1930s, nigger is still a neutral noun in England, and has no meaning of humiliating blacks. But since this word has the obvious meaning of di

28、scriminating the blacks, most of people in England and Americans use some other euphemistic words, such as “colored black” instead. When talking about some other races, it does not often use the direct words that are related to color. People often use some euphemistic expression, such as the geograp

29、hic name.3.3 Historical, literary and political origins of English euphemismFrom the time the Normans conquered England in 1066, English has emerged many euphemisms. At that time, the main reason to use euphemism is that the language used by the conquered is often disparaged, and is thought as gross

30、 language. The upper class surely doesnt want to lower their status to use such words. In order to avoid using such gross words, they tend to use “the elegant words”, which originated from Latin. And these words were mixed into English gradually.There are also many euphemisms in literary works. For

31、example, in Hamlet, Shakespeare use the expression “The undiscovered country from whose bourn no traveler returns”(从来不曾有一个旅人回来过的神秘之国) to express his great sympathy for Hamlet.7 The famous American writer Mark Twain use “release” to express “die” in his work The Adventure of Tom Sawyer. Besides, poli

32、tics is a fertile area for the appearance and growth of English euphemism, which is cosmetic in expression but deceptive in nature. Euphemisms of this kind are always consciously and deliberately. The cosmetic euphemism can be easily found in American English. Governments discussion of the Vietnam W

33、ar was saturated with euphemisms. Villages burned and inhabitants imprisoned were Pacifications”; the war itself was not a war but a “conflict”, the “bombing” becomes “logistical strike” or “close air support”, and “killing” becomes “wasting the enemy”. These euphemisms are used to deceive and to hi

34、de the dirty business of war. 8 The use of such political euphemisms helps government to beautify the action and prevent people from taking any anti-government action. So in order to satisfy the political needs, many euphemisms come to exist-4.The social communicative function of English euphemismFr

35、om the perspective of language communication, euphemism functions to avoid taboos, to show politeness and conceal feelings. Thanks to euphemism, it is easy for people to accept the things that are likely to make others feel embarrassed or unhappy. It is peoples general character to express their ide

36、as as mildly and tactfully as possible. Euphemism helps people to reach this goal. From the moment euphemism came into existence, it has played a very important role in our daily communication, and help establish a good relationship between human beings and even strengthen the social stability. Euph

37、emism are motivated by the desire not to be offensive. People use them to show their politeness, to avoid being offensive and to meet the psychological and beneficial needs of both speakers and hearers in communication. But sometimes they are used to conceal or cover something. Accordingly, euphemis

38、m serves three basic communicative functions: evasive function, polite function and cosmetic function.4.1 The evasive function of English euphemismThe evasive function of euphemism is to evade using taboos, enabling the speaker to talk about tabooed things freely. These tabooed things are believed t

39、o be dangerous to certain individuals, or to the society as a whole, or to be disgusting and unpleasant, and cause fear. Such tabooed things include: disease, disabilities, death, sex, body excretion and body elimination process, etc. People can use euphemisms to talk about what cannot be talked dir

40、ectly.4.1.1 In terms of disease and disabilitiesPeople yearn for health, and fear for specific disease and every sort of disability. So people always use tactful way to express them. For example, sexual or venereal disease such as syphilis, gonorrhoea, ADIS, etc. are called “social disease”, communi

41、cative disease”, etc. in English. Besides, disabilities are very sensitive area in every culture. In English, “the disabled, the handicapped, the inconvenienced, the invalid, auditory impaired, hard of hearing, talk with ones fingers”, etc. are put into service.9 So euphemism plays a very important

42、function in our social communication. Without it, we sometimes cannot continue our talk.4.1.2 In terms of deathDeath is an inevitable stage at the end of lifes journey. It is common experience of human beings. Yet it has been the source of fearfear of the loss of loved ones; fear of the end of ones

43、life; fear of the actual process of dying. Therefore, all these fears, worries, and unpleasant feelings combined lead to verbal taboo of death. Euphemisms concerning death are extremely rich. In English, there are more than seventy euphemisms for “death”, including “to be gone, to be gone to a bette

44、r world, to be with God, to breath ones last, to close ones day, to depart from the world forever, to depart to God, to fall asleep, join the great majority, pass away, etc.10 No matter why this word is used in a certain language, people always tend to use less harsh words 4.1.3 In terms of sex, bod

45、y excretion and body elimination process Words relating to sex, procreation and excretion are highly restricted to mention because they may evoke disgusting responses of people. Verbal taboo on them is probably motivated by the intuitive disaster, shame. People all have certain feelings of which the

46、y are so ashamed that they dont like to admit even to themselves. In peoples daily life or in some formal occasion, if the talk or discussion refers to something about drainage, people will try to avoid using vulgar language. They tend to use some implied or neutral words to make conversation comfor

47、table. For ordinary people, the safest way to avoid mentioning these things that they have to mention in many circumstances is to use another expressioneuphemism to replace the true name of such a thing. For example, in English there are many elegant expressions for “going to WC”, such as: to wash o

48、nes hand, to spend a penny, to go and see ones aunt, to answer the call of nature, because nature calls, etc. 11 “The topic concerning being pregnant is touchy because it tends to arouse the association with sexual behaviors. To beat round bushes is very necessary, such as “with child”, “anticipatin

49、g”, “excepting” for “pregnant”, etc.12 Talking about sexual intercourse is taboo. Expressions relating to sex have heavily been veiled for the purpose of avoiding awkwardness and offense. So people use euphemistic words to talk about it. For example, people evade saying “hip” directly which is repla

50、ced with “buttock”, “bottom”, “ones thing”, and “secret parts” donates sex organs of both males and females.134.1.4 In terms of old age English and Chinese have different feelings about “old age”. A Chinese is proud of being old, whereas a westerner will feel irritated and even insulted at mentionin

51、g his oldness. In English culture, people do not describe others as or to be described as “old” because the old, who no longer work, are ignored by society. Therefore, people create “the second childhood golden years, senior citizen, gray hair, mature golden age” when they refer to “old age” in whic

52、h it attempts to conceal the fact of becoming old and avoid arousing old peoples sad feeling of aging. 144.2 The polite function of English euphemism.Politeness is another important function that euphemisms serve in the social life. Politeness is the symbol of humans civilization and one of the impo

53、rtant principles guiding peoples activities. As a kind of significant social activity, language activity must observe this principle, too. When we have to talk something unpleasant, we should choose euphemistic way to express in order not to hurt others. Being polite is a reasonable action that anyo

54、ne who is keen on face-saving will take. The polite function of euphemism is tried to avoid being harsh or impolite in the communication. In other words, euphemisms are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions. For instance, when a teacher comments on a students moral conduct

55、s and school work in front of the student or his or her parent, he or she should report the fact on one hand, and on the other hand should take into consideration the students psychological endurance and the parents face. So the euphemistic way to express might be “The student is a bit slow for his

56、or her age” instead of “The student is stupid”. 15 The polite function of English euphemism is embodied in every occupational language. Occupational discrimination gives people pressure and emotional irritation. Although euphemisms cannot uproot this kind of phenomenon, at least, they can give them

57、some psychological comfort by upgrading of career name. Therefore, “engineer, manager, etc.” have become more and more fashionable. “Dustman” is changed to “sanitary engineer”; “mechanic” to “automobile engineer”, “gardener” to “landscape architect”, “shoemaker” to “shoe rebuilder”16 In English, the

58、re are many adjectives about peoples appearance, such as “good looking, handsome, pretty, charming, attractive”, etc. They are all commendatory words. When talking about someone who is not pretty, we cannot use “ugly” or awfully. We had better use some euphemisms such as “plain, ordinary, not partic

59、ularly looking”, etc. instead of them. So euphemisms polite function can save peoples face in their process of communication. It is so important that we cannot neglect it.4.3 The cosmetic function of English euphemismBesides the evasive and polite function, euphemism has the cosmetic function. This

60、kind of euphemism is usually used in the government, military, politics and commerce. It refers to using good words to beautify things, which are not beautiful in reality and make the thing be more persuaded and acceptable. Because euphemism has the nature of vagueness, to some extent, it is decepti

61、ve. Traditionally speaking, euphemism plays a positive role in social life. Using it, people can avoid some embarrassed and ungracious occasion. But just as every coin has two sides, euphemism has no exception. Using it suitably can coordinate social relationships, but abusing it will mislead the pu

62、blic, will cover up the essence of things. For example, in modern Western society, the poor is called as “the needy”, later it was changed to “the culturally deprived”, then to “the underprivileged”, at last to “the disadvantaged”. So it will confuse people that this country is so rich that there is

63、 no poor people at all.Firstly, the government and the military often use them to disguise the reality from truth. They describe “economic crisis” as “recession” or “depression”; “attack” as “active defense”.17 At the beginning of 20th century, the relationship between labor and capital become strai

64、ned, and the agitation of striking became a serious social problem. In order to hide the fact, politicians call the strained labor-capital relationship as “industrial climate”, striking as “industrial action”. If the negotiation between labor and capital is successful, it will be claimed as “product

65、ive”, on the contrary, it is “counter-productive”. 18 Secondly, this kind of euphemism is widely used in commerce. It is often used to play tricks and to deceive the customers. The commercial exaggerates the products function and quality. In the same way, the English euphemism is also used to make c

66、ustomers feel pleased. For example, in order to meet the passengers sense of dignity, some Airlines call First Class Deluxe Class or Premium Class; Second Class First Class; and Third Class become Business Class, Economic Class, or Tourist Class. 19 Doing like these, it seems that all passengers position are promoted. Their purpose is to attrac