历史必修一讲义 2

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1、专业好文档中国古代政治制度1.夏：禅让制世袭制2.西周：分封制 宗法制（互为表里）礼乐制 分封制目的：进行有效统治（王族、功臣、帝王后代） 商亡原因：1.宗法制、分封制遭破坏 2.对诸侯控制力削弱3.秦：中央集权制（皇帝制 中央官制（三公九卿）郡县制） 皇帝制度：皇帝大权总揽 三公：丞相 （百官之首 处理政事）、太尉（军务）、御史大夫（副丞相 掌奏折 下诏令 监察） 此种官制意义：1.相互配合，彼此牵制 2.减少重大事情决策失误4.西汉：推恩令（郡县封国并存（中央与地方矛盾）察举制 丞相位高权重，威胁皇权 推恩令意义：加强了中央集权 察举制：举荐孝廉5.魏晋南北朝：三省制 九品中正制6.隋唐：

2、三省六部制 科举制 节度使（唐，藩镇割据） 中央：三省六部 中书（决策）门下（审议）尚书（执行） 三省六部意义：1.三省互相牵制、监督，削弱相权，加强中央集权 2.中国古代政治制度重大创造 地方：设节度使 削弱了中央集权 *科举制意义：1.封建选官制度的一大进步2.有利打破特权垄断、扩大人才来源、提高官员文化素质3.大大加强中央集权7.北宋：二府三司（中书 门下；参知政事 枢密使 三司使）（削弱了相权） 地方：1.兵权收归中央2.文官任地方通判3.中央掌握赋税8.元：行省制（设中书省，代替三省（相权极大）宣慰司） 元中书：政治枢纽（河北 山东 山西） 唐中书：决策机构 行省制度意义：1.便利管

3、理2.加强中央集权3.巩固民族统一4.中国行省制开端 元亡原因：相权过大，皇权不稳，内乱丛生*9 明：文渊阁（翰林院官员）内阁（宰相有实权，内阁无实权）*10.清：南书房（康熙）军机处（雍正） 军机处作用：1.接受召见2.跪受笔录3.上传下达 *影响：导致政治腐败，阻碍资本主义萌芽、社会进步，使中国渐渐落伍于世界。总结：1.地方权力不断削弱，中央权力不断增强 2.相权不断削弱，中央集权不断加强（皇权与相权矛盾作用的必然结果）夏 商 西周 春秋 战国 秦汉 三国 两晋 南北朝 隋唐 宋元 明清 希腊民主政治 城邦众多，小国寡民 公民（1.祖籍2.财产3.兵役4.成年）特点：1.主权在民（公民大会

4、）2.轮番而治（直接民主）3.法律至上1. 梭伦改革（前六）：1.公民分四级2.四百人议事会（前三等级公民）3.公民大会（最高权力机关）4.陪审法庭5.废债奴制 意义：1.动摇旧氏族贵族特权，保障公民民主权利 *2.为雅典民主政治奠定基础2. 克利斯提尼改革（前六）：1.部落选举2.十将军委员会3.五百人议事会4.扩大公民大会权力 意义：雅典民主政治确立3. 伯利克里改革（前五）：“黄金时代” 陪审法庭（最高司法监察机关） 意义：1.为近代西方政治制度奠定了基础2.民主氛围使雅典在精神文化领域取得了辉煌成就局限性：只是“成年男性公民当家作主”的政治制度 1罗马法 罗马共和国/帝国时期所有颁布法

5、律的总和1.习惯法（前509）：法律与习惯没有明显界限，贵族随意解释法律，损害平民利益。2.十二铜表法（前五）：*罗马第一部成文法（罗马法的诞生） 积极：保护了平民利益 消极：保留了一部分比较野蛮的习惯法3.公民法：罗马公民受到法律保护，并享受法律赋予的权利。（仅限于罗马公民）4.万民法（前三）适用于罗马统治范围内的一切自由民 由公民法到万民法的原因：1.版图扩展2.民族矛盾5. 民法大全（六世纪）标志着罗马法体系最终完成*意义：1.巩固了罗马统治2.有利于调整纠纷，缓解社会矛盾3.它是欧洲历史上第一部比较系统完备的法律体系，对近代欧洲国家的立法、司法产生了重要影响局限性：妇女地位低下。近代西

6、方资本主义发展 英国1688 光荣革命资产阶级、新贵族1689权利法案1. 限制国王权利2.保证了议会的立法权、财政权等君主立宪制资产阶级代议制的确立意义：1.议会权利大于国王，国王统而不治2. 英国君主立宪制确立*君主制+贵族制+民主制=英国政治制度美国独立战争1787年宪法（联邦制）1. 第一步较完整资产阶级成文法2. 体现分权与制衡3. 体现民主精神联邦共和制（或总统共和制、民主共和制）美政特点：1.分权、制衡2.中央、地方结合3.民主原则国会：众、参议院（立法）总统：国家元首、军队总司令（行政）最高法院（司法）法国联邦共和制（与美相同）德国君主立宪制（与英相同）不彻底近代中国反侵略、求

7、民主潮流鸦片战争（1840-1841） （英军） 南京条约1.割香港岛给英2.赔款2100万银元3.广厦福宁上4.英商进出口关税协定 影响：1带来屈辱、灾难2.开始沦为半殖半封国家第二次鸦片战争（1856-1858） 天津条约（英法联军）Winger Tuivasa-Sheck, who scored two tries in the Kiwis 20-18 semi-final win over England, has been passed fit after a lower-leg injury, while Slater has been named at full-back but

8、 is still recovering from a knee injury aggravated against USA.Both sides boast 100% records heading into the encounter but Australia have not conceded a try since Josh Charnleys effort in their first pool match against England on the opening day.Aussie winger Jarryd Hayne is the competitions top tr

9、y scorer with nine, closely followed by Tuivasa-Sheck with eight.But it is recently named Rugby League International Federation player of the year Sonny Bill Williams who has attracted the most interest in the tournament so far.The Kiwi - with a tournament high 17 offloads - has the chance of becomi

10、ng the first player to win the World Cup in both rugby league and rugby union after triumphing with the All Blacks in 2011.Id give every award back in a heartbeat just to get across the line this weekend, said Williams.The (lack of) air up there Watch mCayman Islands-based Webb, the head of Fifas an

11、ti-racism taskforce, is in London for the Football Associations 150th anniversary celebrations and will attend Citys Premier League match at Chelsea on Sunday.I am going to be at the match tomorrow and I have asked to meet Yaya Toure, he told BBC Sport.For me its about how he felt and I would like t

12、o speak to him first to find out what his experience was.Uefa hasopened disciplinary proceedings against CSKAfor the racist behaviour of their fans duringCitys 2-1 win.Michel Platini, president of European footballs governing body, has also ordered an immediate investigation into the referees action

13、s.CSKA said they were surprised and disappointed by Toures complaint. In a statement the Russian side added: We found no racist insults from fans of CSKA. Baumgartner the disappointing news: Mission aborted.The supersonic descent could happen as early as Sunda.The weather plays an important role in

14、this mission. Starting at the ground, conditions have to be very calm - winds less than 2 mph, with no precipitation or humidity and limited cloud cover. The balloon, with capsule attached, will move through the lower level of the atmosphere (the troposphere) where our day-to-day weather lives. It w

15、ill climb higher than the tip of Mount Everest (5.5 miles/8.85 kilometers), drifting even higher than the cruising altitude of commercial airliners (5.6 miles/9.17 kilometers) and into the stratosphere. As he crosses the boundary layer (called the tropopause),e can expect a lot of turbulence.The bal

16、loon will slowly drift to the edge of space at 120,000 feet ( Then, I would assume, he will slowly step out onto something resembling an Olympic diving platform.They blew it in 2008 when they got caught cold in the final and they will not make the same mistake against the Kiwis in Manchester.Five ye

17、ars ago they cruised through to the final and so far history has repeated itself here - the last try they conceded was scored by Englands Josh Charnley in the opening game of the tournament.That could be classed as a weakness, a team under-cooked - but I have been impressed by the Kangaroos focus in

18、 their games since then.They have been concentrating on the sort of stuff that wins you tough, even contests - strong defence, especially on their own goal-line, completing sets and a good kick-chase. Theyve been great at all the unglamorous stuff that often goes unnoticed in the stands but not by y

19、our team-mates.It is as though their entire tournament has been preparation for the final.In Johnathan Thurston, Cooper Cronk, Cameron Smith and either Billy Slater or Greg Inglis at full-back they have a spine that is unmatched in rugby league. They have played in so many high-pressure games - a pr

20、iceless asset going into Saturday.The Kiwis are a lot less experienced but winning a dramatic match like their semi-final against England will do wonders for their confidence.They defeated Australia in the Four Nations final in 2010 and the last World Cup, and know they can rise to the big occasion.

21、Winger Tuivasa-Sheck, who scored two tries in the Kiwis 20-18 semi-final win over England, has been passed fit after a lower-leg injury, while Slater has been named at full-back but is still recovering from a knee injury aggravated against USA.Both sides boast 100% records heading into the encounter

22、 but Australia have not conceded a try since Josh Charnleys effort in their first pool match against England on the opening day.Aussie winger Jarryd Hayne is the competitions top try scorer with nine, closely followed by Tuivasa-Sheck with eight.But it is recently named Rugby League International Fe

23、deration player of the year Sonny Bill Williams who has attracted the most interest in the tournament so far.The Kiwi - with a tournament high 17 offloads - has the chance of becoming the first player to win the World Cup in both rugby league and rugby union after triumphing with the All Blacks in 2

24、011.Id give every award back in a heartbeat just to get across the line this weekend, said Williams.The (lack of) air up there Watch mCayman Islands-based Webb, the head of Fifas anti-racism taskforce, is in London for the Football Associations 150th anniversary celebrations and will attend Citys Pr

25、emier League match at Chelsea on Sunday.I am going to be at the match tomorrow and I have asked to meet Yaya Toure, he told BBC Sport.For me its about how he felt and I would like to speak to him first to find out what his experience was.Uefa hasopened disciplinary proceedings against CSKAfor the ra

26、cist behaviour of their fans duringCitys 2-1 win.Michel Platini, president of European footballs governing body, has also ordered an immediate investigation into the referees actions.CSKA said they were surprised and disappointed by Toures complaint. In a statement the Russian side added: We found n

27、o racist insults from fans of CSKA. Baumgartner the disappointing news: Mission aborted.The supersonic descent could happen as early as Sunda.The weather plays an important role in this mission. Starting at the ground, conditions have to be very calm - winds less than 2 mph, with no precipitation or

28、 humidity and limited cloud cover. The balloon, with capsule attached, will move through the lower level of the atmosphere (the troposphere) where our day-to-day weather lives. It will climb higher than the tip of Mount Everest (5.5 miles/8.85 kilometers), drifting even higher than the cruising alti

29、tude of commercial airliners (5.6 miles/9.17 kilometers) and into the stratosphere. As he crosses the boundary layer (called the tropopause),e can expect a lot of turbulence.The balloon will slowly drift to the edge of space at 120,000 feet ( Then, I would assume, he will slowly step out onto someth

30、ing resembling an Olympic diving platform.They blew it in 2008 when they got caught cold in the final and they will not make the same mistake against the Kiwis in Manchester.Five years ago they cruised through to the final and so far history has repeated itself here - the last try they conceded was

31、scored by Englands Josh Charnley in the opening game of the tournament.That could be classed as a weakness, a team under-cooked - but I have been impressed by the Kangaroos focus in their games since then.They have been concentrating on the sort of stuff that wins you tough, even contests - strong d

32、efence, especially on their own goal-line, completing sets and a good kick-chase. Theyve been great at all the unglamorous stuff that often goes unnoticed in the stands but not by your team-mates.It is as though their entire tournament has been preparation for the final.In Johnathan Thurston, Cooper

33、 Cronk, Cameron Smith and either Billy Slater or Greg Inglis at full-back they have a spine that is unmatched in rugby league. They have played in so many high-pressure games - a priceless asset going into Saturday.The Kiwis are a lot less experienced but winning a dramatic match like their semi-final against England will do wonders for their confidence.They defeated Australia in the Four Nations final in 2010 and the last World Cup, and know they can rise to the big occasion.