语言学导论期末复习及练习

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1、语言学导论复习及各章节练习CHAPTER ONEI. Design features of language: productivity, duality, arbitrariness, and displacementII. Origin of language: The mysterious origin of the language or holy origin Bow-wow 自然模声说 Yo-he-ho 劳动号子说 Evolution 进化说 Conventionalism 约定俗成说 Innatism 先天论 After-birth acquisition后天习得说 Gestur

2、es 手势说 Embodiment 体验说 (Reality - cognition - language)III. Functions of language:informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual functionIV. Linguistics and its branches 1. Six periods of linguistics Philo

3、logy 传统语文学时期 (19世纪前) Historical & comparative linguistics历史比较语言学时期 (19世纪) Structural linguistics结构主义语言学时期 (20世纪初) Functional linguistics系统功能主义语言学时期 (20世纪中) Transferred generative linguistics转换生成语言学时期 (20世纪中) Cognitive linguistics认知语言学时期 (20世纪80年代)2. internal branches: inrea-disciplinary divisions (内

4、部分支)1）Phonetics （语音学）studies how speech sounds are pronounced, transmitted and perceived.2）Phonology（音系学） is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. （研究语音和音节的结构、分布和序列）3）Morphology（形态学）is concerned with the internal orga

5、nization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.4）Syntax(句法学) is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of interrelationships between elements in sentence structures

6、.5）Semantics（语义学）is the study of how meaning is encoded in a language, or it is the study of meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.6）Pragmatics（语用学）is the study of meaning in context or in use. 3. external branches: inter-disciplinary divisions （外部分支：跨学科分支，即宏观语言学分支）1）Psychol

7、inguistics is the study of the interrelation of language and mind.2）Sociolinguistics studies the characteristics of languages varieties, language functions and speakers as the three interact and change within a speech community.3）Anthropological linguistics studies the emergence of language and the

8、divergence of language over thousands of years.4）Computational linguistics studies the use of computers to process or produce human language.Chapter Two Phonetics1. Sub-branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics : the production of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics: the physical properties of speech

9、soundsAuditory phonetics or perceptual phonetics : the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds2. Groups of speech soundsConsonants and vowels3. Ways to describe consonants1) position of articulation2) manner of articulation3) voiced or voiceless4. Ways to describe vowels1) the height of tongue raising

10、 (high, mid, low);2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short);4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)Chapter Three PhonologyI. Phonemes and Allophones1. Phoneme: a distinctive, abstract sound with a

11、 distinctive feature (具有区别意义的最小语音单位)2. Allophones: the variants of a phoneme (音位变体)3. Contrastive distribution (对立分布)：the typical to be found in Minimal Pairs (最小对比对)。 A Minimal Pair refers to two words which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in

12、 meaning, for example, bear and pear.4. Complementary distribution（互补分布）:allophones are not found in the same position5. Free variation (自由变体)： If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.II. Supraseg

13、mental Features (超音段特征)The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone and intonation.Chapter Four MorphologyI. Morpheme1. Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language (最小的有意义的语言单位)2. Free Morphemes (自由语素) and Bound Morphemes (黏着语素)1) Free morphemes: Morphemes constituting wor

14、ds by themselves are called free morphemes. They are roots of words.2) Bound morphemes : Morphemes always attached to free morphemes to form new words are called bound morphemes. They are affixes of words, which can be further divided into inflectional affixes (屈折词缀)and derivational affixes（派生词缀）.3)

15、 Inflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.4) Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.II. Word Formation 1. Derivation（派生法） 2. Compounding(复合法) 3. Lexic

16、al change proper (特有的词汇变化) Invention or coinage Blending Abbreviation Acronym Back-formation BorrowingIII. Semantic change Broadening (词义扩大) Narrowing (词义缩小) Metathesis （ Meaning shift (词义转移)Chapter Five SyntaxI. Traditional Grammar（传统语法）1. In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence

17、 of words which are classified into parts of speech.2. Sentences are analysed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, predicates and predicator.3. Nouns: number, case, gender, countability4. Verbs: tense, aspect, voice5. Agreement in number, person and gender II. Structural Gr

18、ammar（结构主义语法）1. It was founded by Saussure, who distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue(语言) and parole（言语）.2. Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate traditional grammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of d

19、ifferent grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.3. Key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic (associative )relations (横组合关系和纵聚合关系/联想关系), structure and system (结构与系统)，immediate constituents analy

20、sis(直接成分分析法)，endocentric and exocentric constructions (向心结构与离心结构) III. Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar (转换生成语法)1. It was founded by Noam Chomsky, who believes that language is somewhat innate - The Innateness Hypothesis (天赋假说) and that children are born with a Language Acquisition Device(语言

21、习得机制)，which consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker (假设标记)，linguistic universal (语言普遍现象) and an evaluation procedure (评估程序)。2. Chomsky distinguishes a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situation as Competence (语言能力) and Pe

22、rformance(语言运用). TG Grammar takes the ideal speakers linguistic competence as the object of study.3. TG Grammar has experienced five stages of development: the Classical Theory, the Standard Theory, the Extended Standard Theory, the Revised Extended Standard Theory and the Minimalist Program.IV. Sys

23、tematic-Functional Grammar(系统功能语法) 1. It was founded by M. A. K. Halliday and takes actual uses of language as the object of study. 2. The Grammar has two components: Systematic Grammar and Functional Grammar. 3. Key concepts: theme and rheme (主位和述位)，communicative dynamism(交际动力)，the three meta-funct

24、ions of language - ideational function(概念功能)，interpersonal function (人际功能) and texual function (文本功能).SummarySchoolsrepresentativesTheories and Concepts1 SaussureLanguage is a system of signs.Structural Grammar2ChomskyTG GrammarThe Prague School/Synchronic linguistic studyLanguage is functional.Func

25、tional Sentence Perspective(FSP)Theme and RhemeThe London SchoolFirthHallidyThe object of linguistics is language in actual use.Systematic-Functional GrammarAmerican StructuralismBoas and SapirBloomfieldSapir-Whorf HypothesisBehaviorism in linguisticsChapter Six SemanticsI. Definition of MeaningII.

26、G. Leech and his 7 types of meaning: Conceptual meaning, Connotative meaning, Social meaning, Affective meaning, Reflected meaning, Collocative meaning and Thematic meaning.III. The conceptual view （概念主义观点）: semantic triangle(语义三角) by Ogden & Richards - Symbol or Form, Referent, and Thought or Refer

27、ence.IV. Contextualism (语境主义)：to base meaning on context; a representative of this approach was J. R. Firth.V. Behaviorism(行为主义): the meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer; a supporter of this approach was Bloomfield,

28、 who was a principle representative of American Structuralism.VI. Key Concepts1. Lexical sense relations (词汇含义关系)Synonymy (同义关系)Polysemy(一词多义)Homonymy(同音或同形异义关系)Hyponymy(上下义关系)Antonymy(反义关系) 2. sentential sense relations(语句含义关系) Tautology (同义反复句) Contradiction (自相矛盾句) Inconsistency (矛盾关系) Synonymous

29、ness (同义关系) Entailment (衍推关系) Presupposition (预设) Semantically anomalousness (语义反常句)Chapter Seven Pragmatics 语用学I. Speech Act Theory (言语行为理论)1. The first major theory in the study of language in use;2. Founded by John Langshaw Austin;3. The major idea is that things can be done with words;4. Two typ

30、es of sentences：performative and Constative (行事话语与叙事话语)5. Theory of the Illocutionary(行事行为理论)：Locutionary Act (言内行为)，Illocutionary Act (言外行为)，Perlocutionary Act (言后行为)II. Conversational Implicature (会话含义理论)1. Proposed by Herbert Grice;2. The Cooperative Principles (合作原则)：Quantity Maxim (数量准则)Quality

31、 Maxim (质量准则)Relation Maxim (关系准则)Manner Maxim (方式准则)Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsIChoose the best answer.1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human _.A. contact B. communication C. relation D. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. tree B.

32、typewriter C. crash D. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is_. A. interrogative B. directive C. informative D. Performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling

33、 the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. Interpersonal B. Emotive C. Performative D. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of la

34、nguage, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? A. Transferability B. Duality C. Displacement D. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? A nice day, isnt it? Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A

35、. Emotive B. Phatic C. Performative D. Interpersonal7. _ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language usersknowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. A. Performance B. Competence C. Langue D. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone th

36、at exists hear and now. It couldnt be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of _. A. cultural transmission B. productivity C. displacement D. duality9. _ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language. A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropologi

37、cal linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10._ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theory B. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguistics D. Comparative linguisticsII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. 11.Language

38、 is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12.Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the pri

39、mary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17.F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th

40、 century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19.Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20.All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written for

41、ms.III.Fill in the blanks. 21.Language, broadly speaking, is a means of _ communication.22.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed _.23. Language has many functions. We can

42、use language to talk about itself. This function is _.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the _ theory.25.Linguistics is the _ study of language.26.Modern linguistics is _ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what langua

43、ge is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a _ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. _ refers to the abstract linguistic

44、 system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussures langue and Chomskys _.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. 31.Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34.Synchronic linguisticsV.Answer the following questions.35.Why do people take du

45、ality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? 36. Why is it difficult to define language? VI.Analyze the following situation.37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? Key:In the reference keys, I wo

46、nt give examples or further analysis. That seems too much work for me. Therefore, this key is only for reference. In order to answer this kind of question, you need more examples. So you should read the textbook carefully. I.15 BACCC 610 BACACII.1115 FFTFF 1620 FFFFFIII.21. verbal 22. productivity /

47、 creativity23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho25. scientific 26. descriptive27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceIV.31.Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communicati

48、on.32.Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33.Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speakers knowledge of his or her language; that is

49、, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34.Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the st

50、udy of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of

51、time.V.35. Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be

52、astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which wil

53、l be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.36.It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not total

54、ly free from limitations.VI.37.It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis collect data check against the observable facts come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the be

55、st answer. 1.Pitch variation is known as _ when its patterns are imposed on sentences. A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a _ is put in slashes (/ /). A. allophone B. phone C. phoneme D. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are _ of the p phoneme

56、. A. analogues B. tagmemes C. morphemes D. Allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as_. A. glottis B. vocal cavity C. pharynx D. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as _ diphthongs. A. wide B. closing C. na

57、rrow D. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called _. A. minimal pairs B. allomorphs C. phones D. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phonetics B. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phonetics D. None of the above8. Which one is di

58、fferent from the others according to places of articulation? A. n B. m C. b D. p9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels? A. i: B. u C. e D. i 10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. Voiceless B. Voiced C. Glottal stop D

59、. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. 11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12.The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modif

60、ication to acquire the quality of a speech sound. 13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14.p is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16.All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glid