语言学-第五章ppt课件

《语言学-第五章ppt课件》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《语言学-第五章ppt课件（121页珍藏版）》请在装配图网上搜索。

1、 Chapter Five Semantics1 Chapter Focuses:1.Theconceptualistview2.Contextualism3.Behaviorism4.Leechs7typesofmeaning5.Referentialtheory6.Senserelation7.Componentialanalysis8.Sentencemeaning2Focuses:21.Definition:nthestudyofmeaning;nMorespecifically,thestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentenc

2、esinparticular.31.Definition:the study of meThebasicareaofstudy:nthemeaningofsigns;nrelationsbetweendifferentlinguisticunits4The basic area of study:42.Approachestomeaning:nWhatisthemeaningofsputnik?nIdidntmeantohurtyou.nLifewithoutfaithhasnomeaning.nFameandrichesmeannothingtothetruescholar.52.Appro

3、aches to meaning:5意义意义：n语言文字或其他符合所表达的内语言文字或其他符合所表达的内容。容。e.g.节约就是不浪费的节约就是不浪费的意思意思。n价值；作用。价值；作用。e.g.人生的人生的意义意义6意义：6nNamingtheory(Plato)nTheconceptualistviewnContextualism(Bloomfield)nBehaviorismnTruthconditions7Naming theory(Plato)7Namingtheory(Plato)命名论命名论Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.nN.:objectsore

4、ventsnadj.:propertiesofthoseobjectsoreventsnV.:actionsnAdv.:thepropertiesofthoseactions8Naming theory(Plato)命名论Words nPlato（柏拉图）：词义就是（柏拉图）：词义就是事事物物、行为和属性的名称，或者说、行为和属性的名称，或者说词语有指义或命名的功能。词语有指义或命名的功能。nRussell（罗素）：一个词的意（罗素）：一个词的意义就是一个义就是一个对象对象，即一个词意指，即一个词意指着某客体，也就是代表着一个客着某客体，也就是代表着一个客体。体。9Plato（柏拉图）：词义就

5、是事物、行为和属性的名称，或者说nLimitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred4)Somewordsmayhavedifferentmeaningsindifferentcontexts.5)Thesamereferencemayhavedifferentn

6、ames.10Limitations:10Theconceptualistview概念概念论论(ideationaltheory）nthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.11The conceptualist view概念论(ideaOgden and Richards:s

7、emantic triangleSymbol/formword/phrase/sentenceReferent/objectintheworldofexperienceThought/reference/concept12Ogden and Richards:semantic tnThesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoft

8、heword.1313n1.形式与意义直接相关，用实线连接。形式与意义直接相关，用实线连接。意义通过符号形式来表达，形式是语义意义通过符号形式来表达，形式是语义的载体。的载体。n2.意义是在各观事物的基础上概括而成意义是在各观事物的基础上概括而成的，是客观事物在头脑中的概括反映，的，是客观事物在头脑中的概括反映，两者也有直接联系，用实线连接。两者也有直接联系，用实线连接。n3.形式和所指之间没有必然的联系，故形式和所指之间没有必然的联系，故而两者间用虚线连接，所以同一事物可而两者间用虚线连接，所以同一事物可以用不同的形式来表示。以用不同的形式来表示。141.形式与意义直接相关，用实线连接。意义

9、通过符号形式来表达Thecontextualism语境论语境论nIamnearthebank.n“black”:black hair&black coffee,orblack sheep differsinmeaning;The context determines themeaning.15The contextualism 语境论15Situationalcontext:nThesetting;nThespeakerandhearer;nTheactivities;nOtherparticipants;nExternalobjectsandevents.Linguistic context

10、:the probability ofwords or expressions co-occurrence orcollocation.16Situational context:16The linguistic model of contextualismnLanguageisalwaysusedinacertaincontext.Speaker A language speaker BContext17The linguistic model of contex Important figures of contextualismnMalinowski:Foralargeclassofca

11、sesthemeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage.nFirth:Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.nHalliday:Meaningisthebridgebetweenlinguisticformsandsituation.18 Important figures of contextu A problem with the contextualismnContextissuchacomplicatedconcept,consistingofsomanyfactors.如：世界知识、语言知识、集体知识、如：世界知识、语言知

12、识、集体知识、参与者、背景、正式程度和基调、媒介、参与者、背景、正式程度和基调、媒介、语篇因素、表现等。（胡壮麟语篇因素、表现等。（胡壮麟2002：“语境研究的语境研究的多元化多元化”）19 A problem with the contextualBehaviorism行为主义论行为主义论nBehaviorists:“the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.20Behaviorism 行为主义论Behaviorists:nthemeaning:“Im

13、Thirsty.”:JillJackS_rs_RnS=Jillseesanapplenr=Jillsays“ImThirsty”ns=JackhearsJillsays“Imthirsty”nR=JackpickstheappleforJill21the meaning:“Im Thirsty.”:2 JillJacknS_rs_RnMeaningconsistsintherelationshipbetweenspeechindicatedbythesmalllettersrsandthepracticaleventsrepresentedbythecapitalizedlettersSand

14、Rthatprecedeandfollowthem respectively.22 Jill ImportantFiguresofBehaviorism:Watson：词的意义就是对词的：词的意义就是对词的有条件有条件的反应的反应。Bloomfield（布龙菲尔德）：意义就（布龙菲尔德）：意义就是讲话人的是讲话人的刺激刺激和听话人的和听话人的反应反应。（meaningasspeakersstimulusandhearersresponse）23Important Figures of BehavioriProblems:n在许多不同的情景中，语词和词句的意在许多不同的情景中，语词和词句的意义是

15、相同的。义是相同的。n意义不能等同于听话人的反应，因为：意义不能等同于听话人的反应，因为：（1）对同样的话语可以有不同的反应。）对同样的话语可以有不同的反应。（2）对不同的语言有同样的反应。）对不同的语言有同样的反应。（3）对话语没有反应。）对话语没有反应。（4）人们往往要先搞清话语的意义才可）人们往往要先搞清话语的意义才可能作出反应。能作出反应。24 Problems:24Truthconditions真值条件真值条件*ThekingofFranceisbald.*Thedeclarationofindependencewassignedin1976.25Truth conditions真值

16、条件25*Knowingthemeaningofasentenceistoknowtheconditionsunderwhichthesentenceistrueorfalse.*Knowingthemeaningofawordorexpressionistoknowthepartitplaysinthetruthorfalsehoodofthesentencecontainingit.26*Knowing the meaning of a sen3.Leechs7typesofmeaning1974,Semantics:The Study of Meaning.7typesofmeaning

17、:2727nConceptualmeaningnConnotativemeaningnSocialmeaningnAffectivemeaningnReflectedandmeaningnCollocativemeaningnThematicmeaningAssociativeMeaning28Associative28 Conceptualmeaning概念意义概念意义(denotative,logicalorcognitivemeaning).ndesk:apieceoffurniturewithawritingsurfaceandusuallydrawersorothercompartm

18、ents nBird:warm-bloodedegg-layingvertebratescharacterizedbyfeathersandforelimbsmodifiedaswings 29 Conceptual meaning概念意义 (dennConcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.一个词本身所代表的一个词本身所代表的字面意义或核心意义。字面意义或核心意义。ntwosides:sense(意义意义)andreference（所指）（所指）30Concerned with the re

19、lationshinSense:concernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform;thecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized.n意思、涵义、意义、或意思、涵义、意义、或系统意义系统意义：指与：指与语境无关、仅涉及语境无关、仅涉及语言内部语言内部成分之间关成分之间关系的意义，它是意义的中心系的意义，它是意义的中心.31Sense:concerned with the inhethesenseof“dog”:nAcommon4-legg

20、edflesh-eatinganimal,esp.anyofthemanyvarietiesusedbymanasacompanionorforhunting,working,guarding,etc.32 the sense of“dog”:32nReference（所指）（所指）:whatalinguisticformreferstointhephysicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.n指称意义、照应关系、所指意义、参指称意

21、义、照应关系、所指意义、参照、或照、或外指意义外指意义：即表明词语跟语言：即表明词语跟语言外部世界外部世界的关系的意义。的关系的意义。33Reference（所指）:what a linguistnLookatthepicture.Init,Maryissaying,“Oh!Ilovethisdogverymuch!”Whatdoesthe“dog”referto?ThedoginfrontofMary!3434 Reference Vs.ContextnLinguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferent

22、situations.nLinguisticsformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.nMeaning=sense+referenceSemanticsVs.Pragmatics35 Reference Vs.Context LinguisDifferences:n意义具有相对的意义具有相对的稳定性、明确性稳定性、明确性；而所；而所指会因人、时、地而异，具有指会因人、时、地而异，具有变化性、变化性、模糊性模糊性。n一般说来，意义是一般说来，意义是抽象化抽象化了的定义，多了的定义，多具有非物质化特征；而所指会具有具有非物质化特征；而所指会具有物质物

23、质化化的特征。的特征。n有意义的词语都有系统意义，但不一定有意义的词语都有系统意义，但不一定有所指。有所指。36Differences:意义具有相对的稳定性、明确性；而所指Connotative(associated)meaning内涵意义内涵意义nold(andwornout)blue(anddown-hearted)sweet(lovely)孩子（幼稚，不懂事）孩子（幼稚，不懂事）37Connotative(associated)meaniThecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveits

24、purelyconceptualcontent.通过语言所指所传达的意义通过语言所指所传达的意义38 The communicative value an enAmultitudeofadditional,non-criterialproperties,includingnotonlyphysicalcharacteristicsbutalsopsychologicalandsocialproperties,aswellastypicalfeatures.nVaryfromagetoage,fromsocietytosociety,fromindividualtoindividual39A m

25、ultitude of additional,nonnInvolvingtherealworldexperienceoneassociateswithanexpressionwhenoneusesorhearsit.nUnstable:theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.nAnycharacteristicofthereferent,identifiedsubjectivelyorobjectively,maycontributetotheconnotat

26、ivemeaningoftheexpressionwhichdenotesit.40Involving the real world exp附加在概念意义上的意义，社会、阶附加在概念意义上的意义，社会、阶级、阶层、集团或个人都可以给一个级、阶层、集团或个人都可以给一个词附加上内涵意义词附加上内涵意义。woman:frail,pronetotears,emotional,inconstant;compassionate,hard-working41附加在概念意义上的意义，社会、阶41Socialmeaning社会意义社会意义4242ndomicile:veryformal,officialnre

27、sidence:formalnabode:poeticnhome:generalnsteed:poeticnhorse:generalnnag:slangngee-gee:babylanguage43domicile:very formal,officiaSocialmeaning:Anexpressionconveysaboutthecontextsorthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse,mainlystylisticmeaningofanutterance.所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义的意义44 Social meaning:

28、An expressinDialect:thelanguageofageographicalregionorofasocialclass.nTime:thelanguageofthe18thc.,etc.nProvince:languageoflaw,ofscience,ofadvertising,etc.nStatus:polite,colloquial,slang,etc.nModality:languageofmemoranda,lectures,jokes,etc.nSingularity:thestyleofDickens,etc.45Dialect:the language of

29、a geoAffective(emotive)meaning感情意义感情意义nIhopeforthesakeofpeaceandstabilitythatClintonwillprovehimselfmorestatesmanthanpolitician.n干部，当官的干部，当官的46Affective(emotive)meaning46nReflectingthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener,orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.感情意义：所传达感情意义

30、：所传达的关于说话人或作者感情，态度的关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义方面的意义47Reflecting the personal feelinReflectivemeaning（联想意义）（联想意义）Cock：intercourse,ejaculation,erection，sex48Reflective meaning（联想意义）48nwhatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.n这是一种能引起听者或读者联想的这是一种能引起听者或读者联想的意义，当你听到或读到它们时，会意义，当你听到或读

31、到它们时，会马上联想起别的事情来。马上联想起别的事情来。49 what is communicated through Collocativemeaning搭配意义搭配意义npretty:girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,colour,village,etc.nhandsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.nclearcase,clearconscience50Collocative meaning搭配意义50nwhatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwo

32、rdswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.n通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。意义。51what is communicated through aThematicmeaning主题意义主题意义nMrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.nThe first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.nThey stopped at the end of the corridor.nAt the end of the corridor

33、,they stopped.52Thematic meaning 主题意义52nWhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.n通过词序和各种强调方式表达出来的意义。通过词序和各种强调方式表达出来的意义。两个句子，一个用主动结构，一个用被动两个句子，一个用主动结构，一个用被动结构，尽管所指的事实或所谈的内容相同，结构，尽管所指的事实或所谈的内容相同，但句子的意义不完全一样。但句子的意义不完全一样。53What is communic

34、ated by the wa4.Majorsenserelations nSynonymy(同义词同义词)nAntonymy（反义词）（反义词）nPolysemy（多义性）（多义性）nHomonymy（同音异义）（同音异义）nHyponymy（下义关系）（下义关系）544.Major sense relations Synon Synonymynbuy/purchasenthrifty/economical/stingynautumn/fallnflat/apartmentntube/underground55 Synonymybuy/purchase55nthe sameness or cl

35、ose similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms:usedindifferentregionaldialects e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol gasoline2)Stylisticsynonyms:differinginstyle.e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence56the sameness or close similari3)Synonyms

36、differingintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning.e.g.collaborator-accomplice,4)Collocationalsynonyms,e.g.accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor;5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms.e.g.amaze,astound,573)Synonyms differing in theirAntonymynhusband-wife,npassfall;ntruefalse;npresentabsent;nmarried-singleWordsareoppositei

37、nmeaning.58Antonymy 58Gradable antonymsne.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-shortnGradableantonyms:thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,59Gradable antonymse.g.old-youn ngood-badnlong-shortnbig-smallFeatures:nCanbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery.nCanhavecomparativeforms.nCanbeaskedwith

38、how.60 good-bad60Complementary antonymsne.g.alive-dead,male-femalenComplementaryantonyms:thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.61Complementary antonymse.g.alinalive:deadnmale:femalenpresent:absentninnocent:guiltynodd:evennpass:failnboy:girlnhit:miss62alive:deadodd:even62Relation

39、al(Converse)antonymy：nbuy:sellnlend:borrowngive:receivenparent:childnhusband:wifenteacher:studentnabove:belownbefore:after63Relational(Converse)antonymyRelational(Converse)antonymy：exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems.64Relational(Converse)antonymyPolysemy多义词多义词ne.g.“table”:nA piec

40、e of furniturenAll the people seated at a tablenThe food that is put on a tablenA thin flat piece of stone,metal wood,etc.nOrderly arrangement of facts,figures,etc.Thesamewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.65Polysemy多义词e.g.“table”:65Homonymy（同音异义）（同音异义）nnight/knightnLead(n.)-lead(v.)nball(n.球球)-ball(n.舞厅

41、舞厅)66Homonymy（同音异义）66nHomonymy：thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsound orspelling,orinboth.nHomophone：whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reignnHomogragh：whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.)nCompletehomonym：whentwowo

42、rdsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.bank,watch,scale,fast67Homonymy：the phenomenon that wHyponymy（下义关系）（下义关系）fruit:apple,orange,pearfurniture:desk,chair,bed68Hyponymy（下义关系）68nHyponymy：thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.nInclusiveness：Aisincludedin/akindof

43、B.roseandflower69Hyponymy：the sense relation benSuperordinate（上义词）（上义词）:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.nHyponyms（下义词）（下义词）:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.nCo-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.70Superordinate（上义词）:the word w5.Senserelationsbetweensentences n(1)XissynonymouswithYn(2)Xis

44、inconsistentwithYn(3)XentailsYn(4)XpresupposesYn(5)Xisacontradictionn(6)Xissemanticallyanomalous715.Sense relations between senX is synonymous with YnX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.nX:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.nIfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.72X is

45、 synonymous with YX:He waX is inconsistent with YnX:Heissingle.nY:Hehasawife.nX:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.nY:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.nIfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.73X is inconsistent with YX:He X entails Y（X蕴涵蕴涵Y）nX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.nY:Johnmarriedablond.nX:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.nY

46、:MarryhasbeentoChina.nX:Johnoftenbeatshiswife.nY:Johnismarried.74X entails Y（X蕴涵Y）X:John marrinEntailment:arelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.nIfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.(下义词蕴涵着上义词，上义词和下下义词蕴涵着上义词，上义词和下义词之间存在着蕴涵关系。义词之间存在着蕴涵关系。)75Entailment:a

47、relation of incl E:arelationshipbetweentwoormoress.Ifknowingthatonesistruegivesuscertainknowledgeofthetruthoftheseconds,thenthefirstsentailsthesecond.Itisconcernedwiththemeaningofthesitself.Itdoesnotdependonthecontextinwhichasisused.蕴涵是两个或更多句子（命题）之间的一种关系。蕴涵是两个或更多句子（命题）之间的一种关系。如果已知第一个句子真实给出关于第二个句子真实如

48、果已知第一个句子真实给出关于第二个句子真实性的某些信息，那么第一个句子蕴涵第二个句子。性的某些信息，那么第一个句子蕴涵第二个句子。它涉及的是句子本身的意义，不依赖于句子使用的它涉及的是句子本身的意义，不依赖于句子使用的上下文。上下文。76 E:a relationship between tnA.johnpickedatulip.nB.johnpickedaflower.nA.Isawaboy.nB.Isawaperson.77A.john picked a tulip.77X presupposes YnX:His bike needs repairing.nY:He has a bike.

49、nPaul has given up smoking.nPaul once smoked.nWhen did John steal the horse?nJohn stole the horse.78X presupposes Y78nP:asemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.APresupposesB,thatis,BisprerequisiteofA.A:ThequeenofEnglandisold.B:Englandhasaqueen.Intermoftruthvalue:IfAistrue,Bmustbetrue.IfAisfalse,Bis

50、stilltrue;IfBistrue,Aiseithertrueorfalse.IfBisfalse,notruthvaluecanbesaidaboutA.Informula:AB-AB79P:a semantic relationship or X is a contradictionn*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.n*Theorphansparentsareprettywell-off.80X is a contradiction*My unmarrX is semantically anomalousn*The man is pregn

51、ant.n*The table has bad intentions.n*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.81X is semantically anomalous*Th6.Componentialanalysiswife:+HUMANADULT+MALE-MARRIEDfather：+MALE+ASCEND-DESCEND+LINERL826.Componential analysis82nawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.basedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbediss

52、ectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.naprocessaimingatbreakingdownthemeaningofawordintoitsminimaldistinctivefeaturesorproperties,whicharealsocalledcomponentsbysomelinguists.83a way to analyze lexical meaniOnewayofdescribingthecomponentsofawordistousefeaturesymbols,whichareusuallywritten

53、incapitalizedletters,with“+”“-“beforethem,plussignindicatesthepresenceof a certain property,and minussignindicatestheabsenceofit.84 One way of describing the cwalk:+NATURAL-HURRIED+FORWARD+ONEFOOTALWAYSONGROUNDGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE85walk:+NATURAL-HURRIED nkill:CAUSEDIEnrise:BECOMEMOREHIG

54、Hnraise:CAUSEBECOMEHIGH8686nfather:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)nxisaparentofy,andxismale.ntake:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)nxcausesxtohavey.ngive:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)nxcausesxnottohavey.87father:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(Strong Pointsnprovidesaninsightintothemeaningofwordsandawaytostudytherelationshipsthatarerelatedinmeaning.88

55、Strong Pointsprovides an insiFeatureItemsHUMANMALEADULTMan+Woman+-+Boy+-Girl+-89 Feature Man +ItemsFeatures父父亲亲祖祖父父外外祖祖父父母母亲亲祖祖母母外外祖祖母母儿儿子子女女儿儿孙孙子子孙孙女女外外孙孙外外孙孙女女AMLE+-+-+-+-ADULT+DIRECT+-+-+-GENERATION+_90 Items父亲祖父外祖父母亲祖母外祖母儿子女儿孙子nShowthehyponymyrelationbetweenwords:man:+ADULT+HUMAN+MALEbachelor:+A

56、DULT+HUMAN+MALEUNMARRIEDnDefinethenaturalcategories:+HUMAN有关人类的名词有关人类的名词-ANIMATE非动物名词非动物名词91Show the hyponymy relation betnExplainrelationshipbetweensomesentences:Johnisabachelor.蕴涵：蕴涵：Johnisaman.92Explain relationship between s Weak Pointsn水可以用水可以用H2O来定义，而语义却不能用同样来定义，而语义却不能用同样严格的方法借助义素来定义（熊学亮严格的方法借

57、助义素来定义（熊学亮2003：98），因为：），因为：n1.我们无法确定什么样的词语可以用作义素。我们无法确定什么样的词语可以用作义素。义素自身可能被进一步分解。义素自身可能被进一步分解。93 Weak Points水可以用H2O来定义，而语义却不能用n2.定义所用的所有义素可能不足以穷尽定义所用的所有义素可能不足以穷尽词语的内涵。如：词语的内涵。如：Bachelor:+MALE+ADULTMARRIED942.定义所用的所有义素可能不足以穷尽词语的内涵。如：94n3.分解寓意既不与真实世界挂钩，分解寓意既不与真实世界挂钩，也不与认识世界挂钩，只不过是有也不与认识世界挂钩，只不过是有一种符号体

58、系（如元语言）去代替、一种符号体系（如元语言）去代替、阐述或说明另一种符号体系（如自阐述或说明另一种符号体系（如自然语言）的意义的做法，给人一然语言）的意义的做法，给人一“两头不着边两头不着边”的感觉。（熊学亮的感觉。（熊学亮2003：98-100）953.分解寓意既不与真实世界挂钩，也不与认识世界挂钩，只不过n4.总体上说，无论是语义特征本总体上说，无论是语义特征本身，还是语义特征分析法，都是身，还是语义特征分析法，都是主观性的。因此，目前作为一种主观性的。因此，目前作为一种科学方法，语义特征分析法在理科学方法，语义特征分析法在理论上还没有形成一整套成熟的操论上还没有形成一整套成熟的操作规程

59、。作规程。964.总体上说，无论是语义特征本身，还是语义特征分析法，都是7.SentenceMeaningnThemeaningofasentenceisobviouslyrelatedtothemeaningsofthewordsusedinit,butitisalsoobviousthatsentencemeaningisnotsimplythesumtotalofthewords.977.Sentence MeaningThe meaninThecatischasingthemouse.nThemouseischasingthecat.nIhavereadthatbook.nThatbo

60、okIhaveread.nThe daughter of Queen Elizabeths son isthesonofQueenElizabethsdaughter.98The cat is chasing the mouse.9Compositionality组合性组合性nthemeaningofasentencedependson:themeaningsoftheconstituentwords:thewaytheyarecombined.n句子意义由成分词的意义及其组合方句子意义由成分词的意义及其组合方式所决定，这一观点通常叫做组合性。式所决定，这一观点通常叫做组合性。99 Compo

61、sitionality组合性the meaninAnintegratedsemantictheory n1963,Katz&PostalnTwoparts:Dictionary;projectionrule100An integrated semantic theory Dictionary:a)grammaticalclassification:hitVtr;ball-Nc(grammaticalorsyntacticmarker)b)semanticinformation:bachelor:whonever101Dictionary:101asetofprojectionrules（投射原

62、则）（投射原则）alexicalitemhasspecificinformationaboutsyntacticcategorieswhichitprojectsontothestructureofthesentence.Itisresponsibleforcombingthemeaningsofwordstogether.词性具有句法分类方面的信息，而且会将这些信息词性具有句法分类方面的信息，而且会将这些信息投射到句子结构中去。投射到句子结构中去。102 a set of projection rules（投give:有两个名词片语作补语，它可有两个名词片语作补语，它可以把这个信息投射到下列

63、句子中去。以把这个信息投射到下列句子中去。shegavetheaccountantthefile.103 give:有两个名词片语作补语，它可以把这个信息投射到nSelectionrestrictions:semanticrestrictionsonwhichlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.“regret”requiresahumansubject.nWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.Greencloudsaresleepi

64、ngfuriously.Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.104104nAccordingtotheprincipleofcompositionality,eachwordinthelexiconisequippedwithcertaincomponentsandcombinationsofwordsintosentencesmustgothroughcertainselectionrestrictionsinordertoproduceacceptablesentences.105According to the principle of nPropo

65、sition:Apropositioniswhatisexpressedbyadeclarativesentencewhenthatsentenceisutteredtomakeastatement.命题是陈述句被用于陈述事件时所表达的意义。命题是陈述句被用于陈述事件时所表达的意义。e.g.Johnhaspassedhisdrivingtest.HisparentswillbuyhimaPorsche.IfJohnhaspassedhisdrivingtest,hisparentswillbuyhimaPorsche.106Proposition:106Averyimportantproper

66、tyofthepropositionisthatithasatruthvalue.Itiseithertrueoffalse.thetruthvalueofacompositepropositionissaidtobethefunctionof,orisdeterminedby,thetruthvaluesofitscomponentpropositionsandthelogicalconnectivesusedinit.命题的一个极为重要的性质是有命题的一个极为重要的性质是有真值，它要么真要么假。复合命题的真值是真值，它要么真要么假。复合命题的真值是成分命题真值和所用逻辑连词来决定着。成分命题真值和所用逻辑连词来决定着。107 A very important property of5usuallogicalconnectivesnthenegativeconnective(否定连词否定连词not)ntheconjunctive&（合取连词（合取连词and）nthedisjunctiveconnective（析取连（析取连词词eitheror）ntheimplicational(co