SELF-DECEPTION英文课件--课件

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1、Self-deception as self-signalling:a model and experimental evidence IntroductionSelf-deceptionAny definition of self-deception is likely to be controversial.We can start with an actual incident:It was sherry hour,a casual gathering of a few doc-toral students,all good friends.A veteran student asser

2、ted that she would complete her dissertation within the year.Are you kidding,youre never going to finish it,remarked another with a smile.The comment was not unjust;the student had nothing to show for some half dozen years in the program Yet,it hit the mark a bit too well,and in an instant its autho

3、r found himself wipingthe contents of a full glass of sherry from hisface and shirt.How to interpretate it?Self-deceptionThere are two interpretations:One could take the students claim at face value:she is convinced that the dissertation will be completed on schedule，all evidence to the contrary.On

4、a second interpretation,the student understood very well that her scholarly prospects were dim.Yet,almost as a matter of personal ritual,she felt compelled to state a contrary belief.Beliefwe can prensent a formal theory of self-deception that relies on a single psychological mechanism-self-signalli

5、ng.The theory distinguishes among three levels of beliefs:deep belief,stated belief and experienced belief.Self-assessments cannot affect actual performance,but can affect the subjects expectations of winning the contest,leading potentially to self-deception.BackgroundSome viewsA self-deceived indiv

6、idual (i)holds two contradictry beliefs,p and not-p (ii)holds them simultaneously (iii)is unaware of holding one of the beliefs (iv)is motivated to remain unaware of that belief Two paradoxes The static paradox concerns the state of mind of the self-deceived individual:how can hehold two incompatibl

7、e beliefs,p and not-p?The dynamic paradox concerns the process of becoming self-deceived:how can a person intentionally acquire a belief or remain unaware of a belief?Self-deserving bias most people rate themselves as superior on virtually any desirable characteristicSelf-serving bias Subjects were

8、first asked to keep their hand submerged in a container of cold water until they could no longer tolerate the pain.This was followed by a debriefing,which explained that a certain inborn heart condition could be diagnosed by the effect of exercise on cold tolerance.The consequences of this condition

9、 included a shorter lifespan and reduced quality of life.Some subjects were told that having a bad heart would increase cold tolerance,while the others were told the opposite.Having absorbed this information,subjects repeated the same cold water tolerance test.The majority showed changes in toleranc

10、e on the second cold trial in the direction correlated with goodnews Self-deception as self-signallingSomething we need to know (i)that sincere deniers(in the QuattroneTversky experiment),due to a desire to live a long,healthy life,were motivated to believe that they had a healthy heart (ii)that thi

11、s motivation(in conjunction with a belief that an upward/downward shift in tolerance would constitute evidence for the favoured proposition)led them to try to shift their tolerance(iii)that this motivation also led them to believe that they were not purposely shifting their tolerance Three ways to m

12、odel self-deception adjust the Bayesian model of belief formation treat the individual as a series of temporal selves,with earlier selves manipulating the beliefs of the later selves add psychological structure by partitioning the decisionmaker into several simultaneously interacting entitiesSelf-si

13、gnalling model rep-resent this characteristic,with indicating its actual value.x a possible outcome,and u(x,)the utility generated by the outcome x in the absence of any choice.Uncertainty about is defined by a probability distribution p(),which may be taken as the current self-image with respect to

14、 this characteristic.The value of the self-image is,in turn,determined by a second function,v(),which indicates how much pleasure or pain a person would feel from discovering true Self-signalling model diagnostic utility an action leads to an updating of the self-image,from p()to p(|x).The change in

15、 self-image generates a second form of utility,called diagnostic utility:Example:cold water experiment u would correspond to cold sensitivity,u(x,u)to the(dis)pleasure associated with x seconds of exposure to cold water in context of the experimental instructions,and v(u)to relief or anxiety associa

16、ted with discovering ones cold sensitivity level.The total utility of choosing to hold ones hand in cold water for x seconds would then be the sum of outcome and diagnostic utility:Self-signalling equation in a self-deception scenario,what is at stake is a desired deep belief,e.g.that ones spouse is

17、 not having an affair.A husband may recog-nize certain problematic pieces of evidence but remain unsure about his own reading of them.Self-signalling is extended to such cases by treating ones interpretation of evidence as the relevant inaccessible characteristic.Formally,is the probability of event

18、 S,and u(x,u)an expectation over these events:.TWO MODES OF SELF-DECEPTIONTwo paradox:the static and dynamic paradoxes of self-deceptionThe static paradox:how can he hold two incompatible beliefs,p and not-p?The dynamic paradox:how can a person intentionally acquire a belief or remain unaware of a b

19、elief?The static paradox:how can he hold two incompatible beliefs,p and not-p?Three levels of belief:Deep belief is associated with the inaccessible characteristic,whose actual value is .Stated belief is associated with the signalling action x,which either directly or indirectly expresses belief.Exp

20、erienced belief is associated with the self-inference that follows the statement,.The dynamic paradox:how can a person intentionally acquire a belief or remain unaware of a belief?How is derived from the choice and from p()?Two modes of self-signalling:Face-value ruleRational ruleFace-value ruleFace

21、-value rule assumes that the inferential mechanism operates without awareness of diagnostic motivation.The updated inferences,are then based on the assumption that an action reveals the characteristic that maximizes only the outcome-utility component of total utility,ignoring the diagnostic componen

22、t.implies u(x,)u(y,)Total utility=outcome utility+diagnostic utilityRational rule must then fully reflect the fact that actions are motivated by the anticipated inferences that flow from them.implies V(x,)V(y,)The signalling value of an ostensibly virtuous action is thereby reduced,or discounted for

23、 diagnostic motivation.Total utility=outcome utility+diagnostic utilityHow the model resolves the dynamic paradox of self-deception?With face-value interpretations,self-deception if attempted always succeeds.Rational interpretations lead to a discounting of self-deceptive actions and statements.Conc

24、lusion:The function of the positive statement is not to convince but merely to preserve uncertainty about deep beliefs.A self-deception experimentIssue of cost&The link betweenSelf-signalling implies that if the desire for good news is strong enough,it will bias interim assessments even if such bias

25、ing reduces overall chances of achieving the long-run goal.(a)ProcedureThe subjects were 85 students at Princeton University.Phase 1:See a series of 100 Korean characters on the computer screen Following the presentation of each character,they were asked to classify it as more male-like or female-li

26、ke in appearanceFollowing each classification,they also rated their confidence on a five point scale.Correct answerPhase 2:At the beginning of each trial,before the sign was displayed,subjects were asked to anticipate(by pressing the M or F key).Subjects encountered the same set of signs,in a differ

27、ent order.See a series of 100 Korean characters on the computer screen.Classify it as more male-like or female-like in appearanceRate their confidence on a five point scale.BonusIn phase 1 and phase 2,each correct response(anticipation and classification)was credited with$0.02,with the total only re

28、vealed at the end of the experiment.In summary,a subject who somehow managed to respond with perfect accuracy would receive$2 in phase I,and$4 in phase II($2 for the 100 perfect anticipations and$2 for the perfect classifications).Additional bonusIn the classification bonus group,the bonus was reser

29、ved for the top three subjects according to ex-post classification accuracy in phase II.In the anticipation bonus group,it was reserved for the top three subjects according to anticipation accuracy.ReviewTwo paradoxA self-deception experimentBonus:anticipation($0.02)and classification($0.02)classifi

30、cation bonus group($40)&anticipation bonus group($40)Phase 1:See a Korean character+Classify it+Rate confidencePhase 2:Anticipate+See a Korean character+Classify it+Rate confidence(b)PredictionsThe payoff matrix for the classification response,following an anticipation that the sign will be male.The

31、 reward for correct classification is c,while the reward for correctly having anticipated that the sign will be male is a.The terms a and c include both the$0.02 piece-rate payment for accuracy and any subjective impact on the expectation of winning the$40 bonus.In the classification bonus condition

32、,the bonus increases the value of c,while in the anticipation bonus condition,it increases the value of a.Given these incentives,the self-signalling equation derives the utilities for the two responsesA reasonable simplification:indicateing that the subject will categorize the stimulus as male ifDis

33、cussion about self-deception as self-signalling Face-value interpretations:If subject classified the stimulus as male,this must mean that she indeed believes deep down that ,which is to say that .This implies thatWith rational interpretations,because awareness of diagnostic motivation discounts the

34、signal;the subject appreciates that there is now a lower bar*0.5 for classifying the sign as male,and consequently that .However,discounting preserves the basic directional implication,namely,that a male classification provides positive information that the sign was in fact male,i.e.Discussion about

35、 self-deception as self-signalling With either face-value or rational interpretations,the diagnostic utility of a male categorization,following a male anticipation,should be positive.The model thus predicts that anticipation-confirming classifications will increase with anticipation incentives(a).(c

36、)ResultsC1:an initial classification in phase 1R1:a confidence rating following initial classification in phase 1 A :a blind anticipation in phase 2C2:a second classification following anticipationR2:a confidence rating following second classification in phase 2Four types of trialsConsistent pattern

37、:C2=A=C1Honest pattern:C2 A and C2=C1Self-deceptive pattern:C2=A C1Inconsistent pattern(baseline):C2 A=C1First,the proportion of self-deceptive patterns is greater than the proportion of inconsistent patterns,which define the error baseline.Second,this impact of anticipations is greater in the antic

38、ipation bonus condition,relative to the classification bonus condition.The impact of incentive condition on self-deception.Per cent of inconsistent patterns gives the baseline for assessing self-deception.The majority of subjects with strong-deception come from the anticipation bonus condition.The o

39、vals are approximate(green circles,subjects with$40 classification bonus;red circles,subjects with$40 anticipation bonus).A regression of C2 against C1 and A In the classification bonus treatment,53 per cent of subjects are significantly self-deceptive at the 0.05 level,and 27 per cent at the 0.001

40、level;In the anticipation bonus condition,73 per cent of subjects are significantly self-deceptive at the 0.05 level,and 45 per cent at the 0.001 level;Comparing treatments,the difference in proportions is significant(p 0.02 for p=0.05 cutoff,p 0.08 for p=0.001 cutoff).The high self-deception(SD)gro

41、up:subjects with self-deception at the 0.001 levelThe moderate self-deception(SD)group:those with self-deception at only 0.05 levelThe average accuracy at C1(according to the peer group answer key)increases from 61.5 to 63.2 and 66.2 per cent for the non-,moderate and high SD groups.At C2,the averag

42、e accuracies are 62.3,63.8 and 62.8 per cent.The high SD subjects exhibit greater motivation with the task initially,but their advantage disappears in the second phase,as result of self-deception.(d)What psychological benefits are obtained for the reduction in objective accuracy?According to self-si

43、gnalling theory there is a diagnostic utility benefit,which we cannot measure directly but which should be revealed through the confidence ratings that follow each classification response.A appropriate indicator of diagnostic utility is the difference between the second and the first confidence rati

44、ngs,R2 R1.The moderate SD group experiences an increase in confidence following confirmation(t(19)=+2.11,p 0.05);The high SD group experiences a marginally significant decrease in confidence following disconfirmation(t(27)=1.76,p 0.05 one-tailed);The moderate SD group is motivated by the benefits of

45、 confirmation;The high SD group is motivated by the costs of disconfirmation.The net benefits of confirmation are highest at moderate rates,as shown in figure 3,which displays quadratic regression of change in confidence on confirmation rate.As expected,the quadratic term is significant,but only fol

46、lowing a confirming response.Confirming responses will deliver the psychological benefit in confidence only if the overall bias in confirmation rate does not stray outside of some reasonable margin.Concluding RemarksFurther The equations of the model could apply equally well to the interaction of tw

47、o individuals,each with distinct beliefs,actions and objectives,with one individual attempting to deceive the other In this concluding section we will comment on the interpersonal interpretation in more detail.SignificanceFirst,the formal theory raises conceptual possibilities that might otherwise be overlooked.Second,the theory motivates experimental studies,such as the one presented here.Finally,it guides search for brain mechanisms that might in principl carry out the computations required by the model.Thank You!