Lecture13GestaltPsychology
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1、Lecture 13:Gestalt Psychology1I.INTRODUCTIONA.IntroductionAndbackinGermany.Philosophicalviewsheldthatconsciousnesscannotbereducedtosensorystimulation,andconsciousexperienceisdifferentfromtheelementsthatcomposeit.ErnstMachpostulatedthattwoperceptions,spaceformandtimeform,appearedtobeindependentofthep
2、articularelementsthatcomposedthem.Mach(andEhrenfels)proposedthatformissomethingthatemergesfromtheelementsofsensation.WilliamJamespostulatedtheintegralstreamofconsciousnessasthefocusofpsychology,incontrasttoisolatedmentalelementswhichcomposedthemind.I.INTRODUCTIONA.IntroductionAndbackinGermany.German
3、psychologiststookissuewithWundtselementismSeveralGermanpsychologistsarguedthatconsciousnesscouldntbereducedtoelementswithoutdistortingthemeaningofconsciousexperience.Assumedthatexperienceisameaningful,intactconfigurationorGestaltTheyadvocatedamolarapproach,whichconcentratesonphenomenologicalexperien
4、cementalexperienceasitoccurredtothenaveobserver,withoutfurtheranalysis(experienceasitappearsinconsciousness).I.INTRODUCTIONA.IntroductionAndbackinGermany.BrentanoandStumpfwerespecificallyinfluentialontheGestaltists.ThefirstGestaltists(MaxWertheimer,KurtKoffka,WolfgangKhler)studiedunderStumpf.Brentan
5、oandStumpfhadproposedActPsychology:Actpsychologyfocusedontheactsofperceiving,sensing,orproblemsolvingTheActpsychologistsandtheGestaltistswerebothphenomenologists.ExploredconsciousnessasawholenotaselementsI.INTRODUCTIONA.IntroductionAndbackinGermany.Gestaltistswantedtotomodelpsychologyafterfieldtheor
6、y,notNewtonianphysics.InNewtonianphysicstherearedirectcausaleventswhichoperatebyanatomisticprincipleofoperation.Theanalogyisofaanalogwatchwheretherearegearsandacarefullylaidoutcausalsequence.InclassicFieldTheory,thereareanarrayofforcesoperatingsimultaneouslywithself-organizingtendencies.Theanalogyis
7、asoapbubble,whosesphericalshapeisnotdefinedbyarigidmathematicalformula,butemergesspontaneouslybytheparallelactionofsurfacetensionactingatallpointsinthesurfacesimultaneously.II.THEGESTALTISTSA.MaxWertheimerMaxWertheimer(18801943)ACzech-bornJewWasastudentofKlpebestknownfortheideaofimagelessthoughts.St
8、udiedthephiphenomenonwithresearchassistantsKhler&KoffkaAperceptionofapparentmovementwhentheelementsoftheexperienceare,infact,stationary.1912:ExperimentalStudiesofthePerceptionofMovement.PerceptionsaredifferentthanthesensationsthatcomprisethemII.THEGESTALTISTSB.KurtKoffkaKurtKoffka(18861941)Hewasborn
9、andeducatedinBerlinandearnedhisPhDtherein1909asastudentofCarlStumpf.HeworkedwithWertheimerinBerlinonthePhiPhenomenon.WroteseveralbooksandarticlesregardingGestaltpsychology.HisPerception:An introduction to Gestalt-theoriealthoughimportant,lefttheimpressionthatGestaltistswereonlyinterestedinperception
10、.II.THEGESTALTISTSC.WolfgangKhlerWolfgangKhler(18871967)WasStumpfsstudentinBerlin1913,KhlerwasdirectorofthePrussianAcademyofSciencesanthropoidresearchstation.WroteThe Mentality of Apes(1917).Challengedtrialanderrortheoriesofproblemsolvinginanimals.Khlerconcludedchimpsexperiencedaninsight(ahaexperien
11、ce),inwhich,havingrealizedananswertoaproblem,theythenproceededtocarryitoutinawaythatwas unwaveringly purposeful.II.THEGESTALTISTSD.AmericanizationofGestaltPsychologyThe3foundersofGestaltPsychologyendedupinAmericaIn1922,KurtKoffkaleftGermanyfortheU.S.toteachatSmithCollege,untilheretired.In1933,MaxWer
12、theimermovedtotheUnitedStatestoescapeNaziGermanyandtaughtattheNewSchoolforSocialResearchinNewYorkCity,wherehestayeduntilhisretirement.In1935WolfgangKhlermovedtotheU.S.afterafalloutwiththeNaziregime.HetaughtatSwarthmoreCollegejustoutsideofPhiladelphiauntilheretired.II.THEGESTALTISTSE.StudentsofGestal
13、tPsychologyStudentsoftheGestaltistsarewellknown:Rudolf Arnheim:WorkedwiththeGestaltistsinBerlin.Bestknownasanartandfilmtheorist,hewrotetheinfluentialArt and Visual Perception.Karl Duncker:WorkedwiththeGestaltistsinBerlin.Dunckerstudiedproblem-solvingandcoinedthetermfunctional fixedness.Kurt Gottscha
14、ldt:ReceivedhisPh.D.inBerlin,withtheGestaltists.DemonstratedthepowerofwholesoverinsertedpartswhichgaverisetotheGottschaldtEmbeddedFiguresTest(EFT).II.THEGESTALTISTSE.StudentsofGestaltPsychologyStudentsoftheGestaltistsarewellknown.Kurt Goldstein:ContemporarywithGestaltpsychologistsinBerlinandUS.Devel
15、opedaholisticviewofbrainfunction,basedonresearchthatshowedthatpeoplewithbraindamagelearnedtouseotherpartsoftheirbrainsincompensation.Heextendedholismtotheentireorganism.Hepostulatedthattherewasonlyonedriveinhumanfunctioning,andcoinedthetermself-actualization whichinfluencedthefoundersoftheAmericanhu
16、manisticpsychologymovement.II.THEGESTALTISTSE.StudentsofGestaltPsychologyStudentsoftheGestaltistsarewellknown.Kurt Lewin:HestudiedwiththeStumpfinBerlin.Hewasoneofthemodernpioneersoforganizationalandappliedpsychologyandthefounderofsocialpsychology.Hewasoneofthefirstresearcherstostudygroupdynamicsando
17、rganizationaldevelopment.DevelopedLewins EquationforbehaviorB=(P,E)whichisafoundationofFieldTheoryHisstudentsincludedMuzaferSherif,SolomonAsch,andLeonFestingerRogerBarker,BlumaZeigarnik,andMortonDeutsch.II.THEGESTALTISTSE.StudentsofGestaltPsychologyStudentsoftheGestaltistsarewellknown.Abraham Luchin
18、s:WorkedwithWertheimerandknownforhisresearchontheroleofamental setastestedbythewaterjarproblems.Wolfgang Metzger:MetzgerwasastudentandassociateofthefoundersGestalttheory.WasWertheimerssuccessorinBerlinandbecameaspokespersonforGestaltinGermany.Bluma Zeigarnik:SovietpsychologistwhodiscoveredtheZeigarn
19、ikeffectandestablishedexperimentalpsychopathology.StudentofKurtLewin,andworkedwithVygotskyandLuria.III.GESTALTPSYCHOLOGY:PRINCIPLESA.IntroductionGestaltPsychologyincludedeightnewcriticalideas.1.Fieldtheory2.Psychophysicalisomorphism3.Brainisadynamicconfigurationofforcesthattransformssensoryinformati
20、on4.Topdownanalysis5.LawofPrgnanz6.Perceptualconstancy7.PerceptualGestalten8.SubjectiveandObjectiveRealityIII.GESTALTPSYCHOLOGY:PRINCIPLESB.FieldTheoryFieldtheoryGestaltistsproposethatthebraincontainsstructuralfieldsofelectrochemicalforces.Uponenteringafield,sensorydatabothmodifythestructureofthefie
21、ldandaremodifiedbythefield.Ourexperienceresultsfromtheinteractionofthesensorydataandtheforcefieldsinthebrain.Cognitiveexperienceresultsfromthefieldsofbrainactivitytransformingsensorydataandgivingthatdatacharacteristicsitotherwisewouldnotpossess.Accordingtothisanalysis,thewhole(electrochemicalforcefi
22、eldsinthebrain)existspriortotheparts(individualsensations)anditisthewholethatgivesthepartstheiridentityandmeaning.III.GESTALTPSYCHOLOGY:PRINCIPLESB.FieldTheoryFieldtheoryForLewin,whodevelopedField Theory,humanbehaviorisexplainedbycomplexdynamicforcesactingonanindividualatagiven.Centraltothisisthecon
23、ceptofLifeSpace.Theseinfluences,calledpsychologicalfacts,consistofanawarenessofinternalevents,externaleventsandrecollectionsofpriorexperiences.Onlythosefacts(realorimagined)thatarecurrentlypresentinthelifespacecaninfluenceapersonsthinkingandbehavior.Biologicalandpsychologicalneedscausetensionintheli
24、fespace,andthesatisfactionoftheneedreducesthetension.III.GESTALTPSYCHOLOGY:PRINCIPLESC.PsychophysicalisomorphismPsychophysicalisomorphismTheforcefieldsinthebraintransformincomingsensorydataandthatisthetransformeddatathatweexperienceconsciously.IsomorphismcomesfromtheGreekmeaning“similarshape.”Thepat
25、ternsofbrainactivityandthepatternsofconsciousexperiencearestructurallyequivalent.III.GESTALTPSYCHOLOGY:PRINCIPLESD.BrainisaDynamicConfigurationBrainisadynamicconfigurationofforcesthattransformssensoryinformationInsteadofviewingthebrainasapassivereceiverandrecorderofsensoryinformationThenotionofisomo
26、rphismnecessitatedanoppositiontotheconstancyhypothesis,whichstatesthereisaone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenenvironmentalstimuliandsensations.III.GESTALTPSYCHOLOGY:PRINCIPLESE.TopDownAnalysisTopdownanalysisForGestaltpsychology,organizedbrainactivitydominatesourperception,notthestimulithatenterintothata
27、ctivity.Therefore,thewholeismoreimportantthantheparts,thusreversingoneofpsychologysoldesttraditions.Analysisproceededfromthetoptothebottominsteadoffromthebottomtothetop,inotherwordsanalysisproceededfromthewholetotheparts.III.GESTALTPSYCHOLOGY:PRINCIPLESF.LawofPrgnanz(pregnantwithmeaning)LawofPrgnanz
28、Thelawassertsthatallcognitiveexperienceswilltendtobeasorganized,symmetrical,simple,andregularastheycanbe,giventhepatternofbrainactivityatanygivenmoment.Thepsychologicalorganizationwillalwaysbeasgoodasconditionsallowbecausefieldsofbrainactivitywillalwaysdistributethemselvesinthesimplestwaypossibleund
29、ertheprevailingconditions.Thisiswhat“asgoodasconditionsallow”means.III.GESTALTPSYCHOLOGY:PRINCIPLESG.PerceptualConstancyPerceptualconstancyThewaywerespondtoobjectsasiftheyarethesame,eventhoughtheactualstimulationoursensesreceivemayvarygreatly.Thisphenomenonisnotafunctionofsensationpluslearningbutisa
30、functionoftheongoingbrainactivityandthefieldsactivity.III.GESTALTPSYCHOLOGY:PRINCIPLESH.SubjectiveandObjectiveRealitySubjectiveandObjectiveRealityKoffkadistinguishedbetweenthegeographicalenvironment(physicalenvironment)andthebehavioralenvironment(oursubjectiveinterpretationofthegeographicalenvironment).Ourownsubjectiverealitygovernsouractionsmorethanthephysicalenvironment.
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