[英语学习]《语言学教程》第四章Fromwordtot课件

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1、Chapter FourFrom Word to Text1 1h第1页，共90页。n nSyntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.2h第2页，共90页。What are the three basic syntactic relations?

2、3 3h第3页，共90页。n nSyntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds:n nrelations of positionrelations of positionn nrelations of substitutabilityrelations of substitutabilityn nrelations of co-occurrencerelations of co-occurrence1.Syntactic relations 4h第4页，共90页。n nWhat is positional relation?n nWha

3、t are the other names for it?n nWhat happens if the word order is changed?5h第5页，共90页。1.1 Relations of Positionn nFor language to fulfill its communicative function,it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.n nThe boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Su

4、bject Object6h第6页，共90页。n nPositional relation,or WORD ORDER,refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.n nIf the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language,order required by the conv

5、ention of a language,one tends to produce an utterance either one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.n nFor example,7h第7页，共90页。n nThe boy kicked the balln n*Boy the ball kicked the*Boy the ball kicked then n*The ball kicked th

6、e boy*The ball kicked the boyn nThe teacher saw the studentsn nThe students saw the teacher8h第8页，共90页。n nPositional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations(组组组组合关系合关系合关系合关系)observed by F.de Saussure.n nThey are also called They are also called Horizontal RelationsHorizon

7、tal Relations or or simply simply Chain RelationsChain Relations.9h第9页，共90页。n nWord order is among the three basic ways(word order,genetic and areal来自一个地区的来自一个地区的来自一个地区的来自一个地区的 classifications)to classify languages in the world:n nSVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,and VOS.SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,and VOS.n nEnglish be

8、longs to SVO type,though this does English belongs to SVO type,though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.order.10h第10页，共90页。What is relations of substitutability?What are the other names?1111h第11页，共90页。1.2 Relation of Substitutabil

9、ity n nThe Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.n nThe_ smiles.The_ smiles.man man boy boy girl girl12h第12页，共90页。n nIt also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitut

10、able grammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong manstrong mann nThe The tallest boytallest boy smiles.smiles.pretty girlpretty girl yesterday.yesterday.n nHe went thereHe went therelast week.last week.the day before.the day before.13h第13页，共90页。n nThis is also called Associative Relat

11、ions by Saussure,and Paradigmatic聚合聚合聚合聚合 Relations by Hjemslev.n nTo make it more understandable,To make it more understandable,they are called they are called Vertical RelationsVertical Relations or or Choice RelationsChoice Relations.14h第14页，共90页。What is the relation of co-occurrence?Is the relat

12、ion syntagmatic or paradigmatic?1515h第15页，共90页。1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence n nIt means that words of different sets of clauses may permit,or require,the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.n nFor instance,a nominal phrase can be preced

13、ed For instance,a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s)and followed by a determiner and adjective(s)and followed by a verbal phrase.by a verbal phrase.16h第16页，共90页。n nRelations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations,partly to paradigmatic relations.17h第17页，

14、共90页。2.Grammatical construction and its constituents 2.1 Grammatical Construction n nAny syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.n nan applean applen nate an appleate an applen nMary ate an appleMary ate an apple18h第18页，共90页。2.2 Constituent

15、s and Phrase Structuren nConstituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Several constituents together form a construction:n nthe girl(NP)the girl(NP)n nate the apple(VP)ate the apple(VP)n nthe girl ate the apple(S)the girl ate the apple(S)19h第19页，共90页。Immediate Constituent直接成分直接成分直接成分直接成分 Analysi

16、s(IC Analysis)The girl ate the apple20h第20页，共90页。Phrase StructureTree diagram S NP VPDet N V NP Det NThe girl ate the apple21h第21页，共90页。22h第22页，共90页。Bracketingn nBracketing is not as common in use,but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.n

17、 n(The)(girl)(ate)(the)(apple)(The)(girl)(ate)(the)(apple)n n S S NPNP Det Det TheTheN N girlgirlVPVP V V ateateNPNP Det Det thetheN N appleapple23h第23页，共90页。PractiseUse the tree diagram to analyse the following sentences:n nThe boy was crying.n nHe bought an old car with his first pay cheque.24h第24

18、页，共90页。Whats the difference between endocentric and exocentric constructions?What are their respective syntactic constructions?2525h第25页，共90页。2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions n nEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its co

19、nstituents,i.e.,a word or a group of words,which serves as a definable centre or head.n nUsually noun phrases,verb phrases and Usually noun phrases,verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordina

20、te to because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.the Head.26h第26页，共90页。27h第27页，共90页。n nExocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole,that is,there is no definable“Centre”or“Head”insid

21、e the group,usually includingn nthe basic sentence,the basic sentence,n nthe prepositional phrase,the prepositional phrase,n nthe predicate(verb+object)construction,and the predicate(verb+object)construction,and n nthe connective(be+complement)construction.the connective(be+complement)construction.2

22、8h第28页，共90页。n nThe boy smiled.(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)n nHe hid behind the door.(Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)n nHe kicked the ball.(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)n nJohn seemed angry.(After division,t

23、he connective construction no longer exists.)29h第29页，共90页。two main types of endocentric constructionsn nWhat are the characteristics of coordinations?What are the characteristics of subordinations?n nWhat are their respective places in recursiveness of languages?30h第30页，共90页。2.4 Coordination and Sub

24、ordination n nEndocentric constructions fall into two main types,depending on the relation between constituents:31h第31页，共90页。Coordination n nCoordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of

25、a conjunction such as and,but and or.n nThese two or more words or phrases or clauses These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status,each of the have equivalent syntactic status,each of the separate constituents can stand for the original separate constituents can sta

26、nd for the original construction functionally.construction functionally.32h第32页，共90页。n nCoordination of NPs:n n NPNP the lady or the lady or NPNP the tiger the tigern nCoordination of VPs:n n VPVP go to the library and go to the library and VPVP read a book read a book n nCoordination of PPs:n n PPP

27、P down the stairs and down the stairs and PPPP out the door out the door n nCoordination of APs:n n APAP quite expensive and quite expensive and APAP very beautiful very beautifuln nCoordination of Ss:n n S S John loves Mary and John loves Mary and S S Mary loves John too.Mary loves John too.33h第33页

28、，共90页。Subordination n nSubordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status,one being dependent upon the other,and usually a constituent of the other.n nThe subordinate constituents are words which The subordinate constituents are wor

29、ds which modify the modify the headhead.Consequently,they can be.Consequently,they can be called called modifiersmodifiers.34h第34页，共90页。n ntwo dogs Headn n(My brother)can drink(wine).Headn nSwimming in the lake(is fun).Headn n(The pepper was)hot beyond endurance.Head35h第35页，共90页。Subordinate clausesn

30、 nClauses can be used as subordinate constituents.There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:n ncomplement clausescomplement clausesn nadjunct(or adverbial)clausesadjunct(or adverbial)clausesn nrelative clausesrelative clauses36h第36页，共90页。n nJohn believesJohn believes that the airplane was i

31、nvented by an that the airplane was invented by an IrishmanIrishman.(complement clause)(complement clause)n nElizabeth opened her presentsElizabeth opened her presents before John finished before John finished his dinnerhis dinner.(adverbial clause)(adverbial clause)n nThe womanThe woman that I love

32、 that I love is moving to the south.is moving to the south.(relative(relative clause)clause)37h第37页，共90页。n nWhat are the basic functional terms in syntax?n n What is a subject?n nWhat is a predicate?n nWhat is a predicator?n nWhat is an object?38h第38页，共90页。3.Syntactic Function n nThe syntactic funct

33、ion shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.n nNames of functions are expressed in terms of Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjectssubjects,objectsobjects,predicatorspredicators,modifiersmodifiers,complementscomplem

34、ents,etc.,etc.39h第39页，共90页。3.1 Subject n nIn some languages,subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.n nThe typical example can be found in Latin,where subject is always in nominative case,such as pater and filius in the following examples.n npaterpater filium amat filium amat (the

35、father(the father loves the son)loves the son)n npatrum filius amatpatrum filius amat(the sonthe son loves the father)loves the father)40h第40页，共90页。n nIn English,the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent,or the doer of the action,while the object is the person or thing acted upon by th

36、e agent.n nThis definition seems to work for these sentences:This definition seems to work for these sentences:n nMaryMary slapped John.slapped John.A dogA dog bit Bill.bit Bill.41h第41页，共90页。n nbut is clearly wrong in the following examples:n nJohnJohn was bitten by a dog.was bitten by a dog.n nJohn

37、John underwent major heart surgery.underwent major heart surgery.n nIn order to account for the case of subject in passive voice,we have two other terms“grammatical subject”(John)and“logical subject”(a dog).42h第42页，共90页。n nAnother traditional definition of the subject is“what the sentence is about”(

38、i.e.,topic).n nAgain,this seems to work for many sentences,such asn nBill is a very crafty fellow.Bill is a very crafty fellow.n nbut fails in others,such asn n(Jack is pretty reliable,but)Bill I dont trust.(Jack is pretty reliable,but)Bill I dont trust.n nAs for Bill,I wouldnt take his promises ver

39、y As for Bill,I wouldnt take his promises very seriously.seriously.43h第43页，共90页。n nAll three sentences seem to be“about”Bill;thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.n nThe above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.n nWhat characteristi

40、cs do subjects have?44h第44页，共90页。Word ordern nSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:n nSally collects stamps.Sally collects stamps.n n*Collects Sally stamps.*Collects Sally stamps.45h第45页，共90页。Pro-formsn nThe first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when th

41、e pronoun is a subject,which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:n nHe loves me.He loves me.n nI love him.I love him.n nWe threw stones at them.We threw stones at them.n nThey threw stones at us.They threw stones at us.46h第46页，共90页。Agreement with the verbn nIn the simple present t

42、ense,an-s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular,but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:n nShe angers him.She angers him.n nThey anger him.They anger him.n nShe angers them.She angers them.47h第4

43、7页，共90页。Content questionsn nIf the subject is replaced by a question word(who or what),the rest of the sentence remains unchanged,as inn nJohn John stole the Queens picture from stole the Queens picture from the British Council.the British Council.n nWho Who stole the Queens picture from stole the Q

44、ueens picture from the British council?the British council?48h第48页，共90页。n nWhat would What would John steal,if he John steal,if he had the chance?had the chance?n nWhat did What did John steal from the John steal from the British Council?British Council?n nWhere did Where did John steal the John ste

45、al the Queens picture from?Queens picture from?n nWhen any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word,an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject.49h第49页，共90页。Tag questionn nA tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement.It always contains a pronoun which refers ba

46、ck to the subject,and never to any other element in the sentence.n nJohn loves Mary,John loves Mary,doesnt he?doesnt he?n nMary loves John,Mary loves John,doesnt she?doesnt she?n n*John loves Mary,*John loves Mary,doesnt she?doesnt she?50h第50页，共90页。3.2 Predicate n nPredicate refers to a major consti

47、tuent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.n nIt usually expresses actions,processes,and states that refer to the subject.n nThe boyThe boy is running.is running.(process)(process)n nPeterPeter broke the glass

48、broke the glass.(action)(action)n nJaneJane must be mad!must be mad!(state)(state)n nThe word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.51h第51页，共90页。3.3 Object n nObject is also a term hard to define.Since,traditionally,subject can be defined as the doer of the action,object

49、may refer to the“receiver”or“goal”of an action,and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.n nMother boughtMother bought a dolla doll.n nMother gaveMother gave my sistermy sister a dolla doll.IO DOIO DO 52h第52页，共90页。n nIn some inflecting languages,object is marked by case lab

50、els:the accusative case for direct object,and the dative case for indirect object.n nIn English,“object”is recognized by tracing its In English,“object”is recognized by tracing its relation to word order(after the verb and relation to word order(after the verb and preposition)and by inflections(of p

51、ronouns).preposition)and by inflections(of pronouns).n nMother gaveMother gave a dolla doll to to my sistermy sister.n nJohn kickedJohn kicked meme.53h第53页，共90页。n nModern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.n nJohn brokeJohn bro

52、ke the glassthe glass.The glassThe glass was broken was broken by John.by John.n nPeter sawPeter saw JaneJane.JaneJane was seen by Peter.was seen by Peter.54h第54页，共90页。n nAlthough there are nominal phrases in the following,they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive

53、voice.n nHe diedHe died last weeklast week.n nThe match lastedThe match lasted three hoursthree hours.n nHe changed trains at Manchester.(*He changed trains at Manchester.(*TrainsTrains were were changed by him at Manchester.)changed by him at Manchester.)55h第55页，共90页。4.Category n nThe term category

54、 refers to the defining properties of these general units:n nCategories of the noun:Categories of the noun:number,gender,case number,gender,case and countabilityand countability n nCategories of the verb:Categories of the verb:tense,aspect,voicetense,aspect,voice56h第56页，共90页。4.4.1 Numbern nWhat are

55、the contrasts in number?n nWhat constructs can reflect number?57h第57页，共90页。4.1 Numbern nNumber is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular,dual,plural,etc.n nIn English,number is mainly observed in In English,number is mainly observed in noun

56、s,and there are only two forms:singular nouns,and there are only two forms:singular and plural,such as and plural,such as dog:dogsdog:dogs.n nNumber is also reflected in the inflections of Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs,such as pronouns and verbs,such as He laughs:

57、They He laughs:They laugh,this man:these menlaugh,this man:these men.58h第58页，共90页。n nIn other languages,for example,French,the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.n nle cheval royalle cheval royal(the royal horse)(the royal horse)n nles chevaux royauxles chevaux roya

58、ux(the royal horses)(the royal horses)59h第59页，共90页。4.4.2 Gendern nGender:natural gender&grammatical gendern nIs there a natrual correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender?n nWhat constructs can manifest gender?60h第60页，共90页。4.2 Gendern nSuch contrasts as“masculine:feminine:neuter”,“ani

59、mate:inanimate”,etc.for the analysis of word classes.n nThough there is a correlation between natural Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender,the assignment gender and grammatical gender,the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases.may seem quite arbitrar

60、y in many cases.n nFor instance,in Latin,For instance,in Latin,ignisignis fire is masculine,fire is masculine,while while flammaflamma flame is feminine.flame is feminine.61h第61页，共90页。n nEnglish gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns,and,they are mainly of the n

61、atural gender type.n nhe:she:it he:she:it n nprince:princess prince:princess n nauthor:authoressauthor:authoress62h第62页，共90页。n nIn French,gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.n nbeau cadeaubeau cadeau(fine gift)(fine gift)n nbelle maisonbelle maison(fine (fine house)house)n nLe

62、cadeau est beau.Le cadeau est beau.(The gift is good.)(The gift is good.)n nLa maison est belle.La maison est belle.(The house is(The house is beautiful.)beautiful.)63h第63页，共90页。n nSometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well,for example,in French:n nle poelele poele(the stove)(the stove)n n

63、la poelela poele(the frying pan)(the frying pan)n nle pendulele pendule(the pendulum)(the pendulum)n nla pendulela pendule(the clock)(the clock)64h第64页，共90页。4.4.3 Casen nCase:used to indentify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.n nWhat are the cases concerned with English nouns?6

64、5h第65页，共90页。4.3 Case n nThe case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.n nIn Latin grammar,cases are based on variations In Latin grammar,cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word,and are in the

65、morphological forms of the word,and are given the terms“given the terms“accusativeaccusative”,“”,“nominativenominative”,”,“dativedative”,etc.”,etc.n nThere are five cases in ancient Greek and eight There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit.Finnish has as many as fifteen in Sanskrit

66、.Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns,each with its formally distinct cases in nouns,each with its own syntactic function.own syntactic function.66h第66页，共90页。n nIn English,case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun,and it is realized in three channels:n ninflectioninflectionn nfollowing a prepositionfollowing a prepositionn nword orderword ordern nas manifested inn nteacher:teachersteacher:teachersn nwith:to