Argumentation
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1、ArgumentationArgumentationNature of argumentative essay1.Topresentanopiniontothereader.2.Toexplain,clarify,andillustratethatopinion.3.Topersuadethereaderthatyouropinionisvalid.a.tomovethereadertoaction;b.toconvincethereaderthattheopinioniscorrectorc.topersuadethereaderthatyouropinionisatleastworthco
2、nsidering.Different types of writingNarrationDescription ExpositionArgumentationPurposeToneTotellastoryTodescribeToinformToconvinceMoreemotionalMorematter-of-factMoreacademicorexplanatoryMoreargumentativeNarration Description Exposition ArgumentationDevelopmentContentBytimeByspaceBygenerallogicByded
3、uctionorInductionNarrationofteninvolvesdescription.Argumentationofteninvolvesexplanation.Expositionoftenincludesdescriptionandnarration.Exposition vs.ArgumentationWhileanexpositorypapermakesknownsomethingandexplainsittomakethereaderunderstand,anargumentativeessaytriestomakethereaderagreewithitspoint
4、ofviewandsupportit,topersuadehimtochangehismindorbehavior,andtoapproveapolicyoracourseofactionthatitproposes.Speechesonpolices,editorialsofnewspapers,articlesonpoliticalortheoreticalquestions,andvariousproposalsareoftenargumentative.Argumentationfrequentlymakesuseoftheotherthreetypesofwritingdescrip
5、tion,narration,andaboveallexposition,forargumentationandexpositionareverycloselyrelatedargumentationisactuallyexpositionwiththeadditionalpurposeofconvincingorpersuading.What it involvesWhat it aims atExposition1.Presentingapointofview2.Explaining,clarifying,andillustratingthepointofviewGettingreader
6、stounderstandthepointofviewArgumentation1.Assumingcontroversy2.Presentingapointofview3.Explaining,clarifying,andillustratingthepointofview4.Supplyingproofforthepointofview5.Refutingopposingviewpoints1.Convincingreadersthatthepointofviewissound2.Encouragingreaderstoacceptthepointofview,and/or3.Encour
7、agingreaderstotakeaction What type of writing should we write judging from the following titles?ExaminationHarmfulorUseful?MyViewsonExaminationsWhichWeighsMoreSchoolBrandorMajor?WhyICametoCollegeShouldClassAttendanceBeRequired?Laid-offWorkersHavetoFaceRealityInternetaCoinofTwoSidesInternettheIndispe
8、nsableofOurLifeShouldEuthanasia安乐死BeLegalized?AEAEAEEEAHow to write a good argumentation?ArgumentationQuarrelAdebatablepointSufficientevidenceThelogicalappealTheemotionalappealEssentialelementsOutlineofapropositionargumentFallaciesinargumentativewriting1.An honest and friendly attitudeToargueisnotto
9、quarrel.Theforceofanargumentdoesnotcomefromabuse,sarcasm,exaggeration,orfierceattacks,butfromsolidevidence,logicalreasoning,andcarefulanalysis.Adomineeringorhostiletonecouldonlyraisedoubtsaboutyourgoodfaithandimpairthecredibilityofyourargument,whereasanhonestandfriendlyattitudewillhelpwinthetrustofy
10、ourreaders.Takecarethatyouneitheroverstateorunderstate,andavoidoveruseofsuchwordsandphrasesas“perhaps”,“maybe”,“sometimes”,“mostoften”,“nearlyalways,”“Ithink“,“inmyopinion”,whichinvariablyweakentheforceofyourargument.2.A debatable pointItisimperativethatthepapershouldhaveadebatablepoint,thatis,somet
11、hingwhichcanbeviewedfrommorethanoneangleandisthereforeopentodispute.Generallyspeaking,thefollowingarenotgoodthemes:MerestatementsoffactsStatementsofpersonaltasteViewpointsthatcanbereadilyverifiedExamples1)Merestatementoffacts.“Chinesedoctorsuseacupunctureanesthesia(针刺麻醉)toperformcertainoperations.”“
12、Acupunctureanesthesiashouldreplaceconventionalanesthesiainalloperations.”Examples2)Statementsofpersonalpreference“BaJinismyfavoriteauthor.”“BaJinisthegreatestChinesewriterofthe20thcentury.”Examples3)Viewpointsthataregenerallyacceptedorcanbeeasilyverified“Noisepollutionisharmfultopeopleshealth.”“Nois
13、epollutionisthemostharmfulofallenvironmentalpollution.”PracticesCertainelectronicequipmenthavebeenusedinroadcontrol.Electronicequipmentshouldbeappliedinallroadcontrol.Privatecarsarecausesofroadaccidents.Privatecarsarethenumberonekilleronroads.Findoutwhetherthefollowingstatementsaredebatableornotande
14、xplainthereason.1.Computersandautomationincreaseunemployment.2.Smokingisharmfultopeopleshealth.3.Plantsproduceoxygenthattheworldneedstosustainlife.4.Shakespearediedin1616.5.Everystudentshouldberequiredtobecomecomputerliterate.6.Computercoursesareboring.topic+yourposition/standtopic+opposingarguments
15、+yourposition/standAlthough many young people would agree that those who are old enough to vote,fight,and die for their country are old enough to drive responsibly,the drinking age should remain twenty-one because of the dangers of alcohol-related accidents and the lack of alcohol education programs
16、.How to write a debatable thesis statementPractice:Topic:owingagunOpposingarguments(CONs):Owningagunisanecessarystepforsecurityofpropertyandself-defense.Yourposition/stand(PROs):Thepresenceofaguninthehomeincreasesthechancesofaccidentaldeaths,suicides,andhomicides.Although some argue that the presenc
17、e of a gun in the home increases the chances of accidental deaths,suicides,and homicides,owning a gun is a necessary step for security of property and self-defense.Although some argue that owing a gun is a necessary step to the security of property and self-defense,the presence of a gun in the home
18、increases the chances of accidental deaths,suicides,and homicides.3.Sufficient evidenceExamples:concrete,illustrative,representativeFacts:readilyaccepted,bebasedonpersonalobservationStatistics:avoidpresentingalonglistoffiguresAuthorities:thosewhoareexperiencedandknowledgeableincertainfieldsThesis:Le
19、avingtheuniversityandstartingtoworkisgoodfortheadolescent.1.Feelings,emotionalargumentsItmakesonefeelmuchbetter.2.Irrelevantexamples(wanderingoffthetopic)Hewouldthenbeabletotakehisgirlfriendtoexpensiverestaurants.Some faulty supports we should avoid:3.OversimplificationOnlythenwouldheunderstandwhati
20、tmeanstobeanadult.4.HastygeneralizationsItisawidelyknownfactthatalladolescentslookforwardtoearningmoney.5.Unreliable,evenfalseoutsidesourcesA,80%ofworkingmenwishtheyquitschoolwhentheywereatuniversityandstartedworkingatanearlierage.4.The logical appealFromtheleastimportanttothemostimportantFromthemos
21、tfamiliartotheleastfamiliarFromtheeasiestforthereadertoacceptorcomprehendtothemostdifficultInductiveReasoningDeductiveReasoningInductiveReasoningWhenyouuseinduction,youstartwithfactsandproceedfrom facts to a general conclusion.Inotherwords,youmovefrom specific examples to a general statement.Fromspe
22、cifictogeneralDeductiveReasoningTheprocessisjusttheoppositeofinductivereasoningitmovesfrom a general statement to a specific conclusion.Itworksonthemodelofsyllogism(逻三段论法,推论法,演绎)athree-partargumentinwhichtherearetwostatements,knownasthemajorpremise前提andtheminorpremise,andaconclusion.Fromgeneraltospe
23、cificExamplesMajorpremise:Bigcitiescanbedangerous.Minorpremise:NewYorkisoneofthebigcities.Conclusion:NewYorkcanbedangerous.OrMajorpremise:Allhumanbeingsmakemistakes.Minorpremise:Xisahumanbeing.Conclusion:Therefore,Xmakesmistakes.OrMajorpremise:Peoplecantbetrusted.Minorpremise:Jerryisaperson.Conclusi
24、on:Jerrycantbetrusted.(Faulty syllogism)5.The emotional appealAneffectiveemotionalappealcanbemadeinfourcommonways:Showingempathy:=Identifywiththereadersfeelingsandexpressrealinterestintheirinterest.Noteempathy:Identificationwithandunderstandingofanotherssituation,feelings,andmotives.Showingrespectfo
25、rviewsotherthanyours:=Thepurposeistowinreaderstoyourside.Byshowingrespectforthemeritintheirposition,youaredecreasingreadersresistancetoyourownposition.Besides,italsoprovesthatyouunderstandthatnoarguablepositionisabsolutelyright.Maintainingamoderatetone:=Thepurposeofdoingthisistoeaseanypotentialattac
26、konyourargument.Usingvividexamples:=Thepurposeistoattracttheattentionofreaderstotheissueyouarediscussing.6.Essential elementsTheissueTheclaimThesupportTherefutationA.The issueacontroversy,aproblem,oranideaaboutwhichpeopledisagreeandholddifferentpointsofview.Ex.Identifyandcheckthestatementsthatcanbed
27、evelopedasanargumentandexplainwhytheotherscant.TheUnitedNationsisaninternationalorganizationofcountriescreatedtopromoteworldpeaceandcooperation.Thegenerationgapbetweenparentsandtheirteenagechildreniswidening.Smokingshouldbebannedinworkplace.Thegreenhouseeffecthassignificantlyaffectedtheenvironment.“
28、Home”meansdifferentthingstodifferentpeople.Moreeffectivemeasuresshouldbeadoptedtocrackdownon(处罚、制裁)cybercrime.Thereshouldbestricterlawsagainstfishingincitycanals.Competentteachersshouldntbeforcedtoretireatage60.B.The claim-thepointofviewthewritertriestoproveabouttheissue,usuallythewritersviewontheis
29、sue.Tipsonhowtomakeaclaim:Besurethattheclaimwhatyouaretryingtoproveisclearlystated,preferablyatthebeginningofyourpaper.Whennecessary,definetermsthatmaycauseconfusionbeforemakingaclaim.Qualifyaclaimoffact,whennecessary,withawordsuchasgenerally,usually,probably,oras a rule,thatlimitstheclaim,e.g.Gener
30、ally,collegegraduatesearnmorethanhighschoolgraduateswhodidntgotocollege.Inthecaseofclaimsofvalue,adheretothevaluesyoudefend.Stateaclaimofpolicywithawordsuchasshould ormust.C.The support-Thethreecommontypesofsupportarereasons,evidenceandemotionalappeal.Reasons:generalstatementsthatbackupaclaim,explai
31、ningwhyaviewpointonanissueisreasonableorcorrect.Reasonsshouldbelogical(i.e.makingsense)reasonable(i.e.fair)Evidence:whatwritersusetosupportorverifyreasons.Evidenceshouldberelevant(i.e.appropriatetothecaseinhand)sufficient(i.e.asmuchasyouneedtoverifyareason)Emotionalappeal:whichevoketheneedsorvaluest
32、hatreaderscaredeeplyabout.appealingtoneedsappealingtovaluesTypes of evidence exemplified:Claim:Readingaloudtopreschoolandkindergartenchildrenimprovestheirchancesofsuccessinschool.Facts:e.g.First-gradechildrenwhowerereadtoaspreschoolerslearntoreadearlierthanchildrenwhowerenotreadto.Statistics:e.g.A19
33、98studydemonstratedthatreadingaloudtochildrenproduceda16percentimprovementinthechildrensabilitytorecognizewordsusedinastory.Expertopinion,e.g.Dr.MariaMorealle,achildpsychologist,urgesparentstoreadtwoorthreechildrensstoriestotheirchildrendaily.Examples,e.g.Storiesaboutunfamiliarplacesoractivitiesincr
34、easeachildsvocabulary.Forexample,readingastoryaboutafarmtoachildwholivesinacityapartmentwillacquaintthechildwithsuchnewtermsasbarn,plow,andtractor.Observationfrompersonalexperience,e.g.WhenIreadtomythree-year-oldson,Inoticethathetriestorepeatwords.D.The refutationrecognizes/acknowledgesandarguesagai
35、nstopposingviewpoints.Guidingprinciple:findingaweaknessintheopponentsargument.Eg.bycastingdoubtontheopponentsreasons;byquestioningtheaccuracy,relevancy,andsufficiencyoftheopponentsevidence(facts,examples,statisticsandexperttestimony)Structureoftherefutation:Brieflyacknowledgetheopposingviews.Thenres
36、pondandpointoutwhyit/theyis/arewrong.7.Organization of an argumentationAllargumentativetopicshavePROsandCONs.Threepossibleorganizationalpatterns:A University in Every TownHowever,whilethealreadyexisting85universitiesarewrestlingwithfinancialandacademicdifficulties,itdoesnotseemtobeagoodideatoaddnewu
37、niversitiestothesystemofhighereducation.Firstofall,thenewuniversitieswillexperiencestaffingproblems.Inadditiontorecruitmentproblems,smalltownuniversitieswillhavefinancialdifficulties.Itisarguedthattheestablishmentofauniversityinadevelopingtownwillcontributetothedevelopmentoflocalculture,communityand
38、economy.However,ifauniversityiswrestlingwithstaffrecruitmentproblems,orifitcannotsolveitsfinancialdifficultiesitmeansthatitcannotbeofanyhelptothelocalcommunityoreconomyeither.Thesis statement:PRO idea 1:PRO idea 2:CON+Refutation:On Student Lovers Living TogetherAccordingtoofficialstatistics,thenumbe
39、rofcollegestudentloverslivingtogetheroffcampusinBeijinghasincreasedbyfourtimesbetween1997and2001.ThisisundeniablytrueofmanyotherplacesinChina.Althoughmanystudentsdonotstronglyobjecttoit,Idontthinkitisadvisableforcollegestudentloverstolivetogetherawayfromcampus.Someloverssaythatlivingtogethercanhelpt
40、hemstudybetter,foritcanhelpthemgetridoftheinterferenceofotherstudents.Thisisactuallynottrue.Whenlivingawayfromcampus,theloverswillalwaysthinkofeachotherratherthantheteachersassignment,andotherunavoidablefamilychoressuchascookingandwashingwillalsotakemuchtimeawaythatmighthavebeenspentonstudy.Besides,
41、manycoursesnowrequiregroupworkorcooperation.Iftheystayawayfromotherclassmates,howcantheystudythesecourseswell?Someloverssaythatlivingtogethercanrelievetheirlonelinessandpressure,butitisnotreallythebestchoice.Ontheonehand,therealreasonfortheirlonelinessisthattheyarenotfocusingtheirmindonstudy.Study,t
42、hemostimportanttaskforuniversitystudents,canprovetobefascinatingifyoureallyfocusonit./Ontheotherhand,eveniftheirlonelinessisreal,therearemanybetterwaystodealwithit./Forinstance,theycanfindfriendstotakepartinsportsorotherentertainingactivities.Bystayingawayfromotherclassmates,livingtogethercanbeasour
43、ceofratherthansolutiontoloneliness.Otherloversarguethattheymeantogetmarriedaftergraduation,andthisexperiencecanhelpthemtesteachothertoseeiftheyaresuitableformarriedlife.Butthismentalitydoesnotholdwater.Thetwoloversmayreallyloveeachother,butlivingtogethercanactuallyspoilagoodrelationship,becauseitent
44、ersintoweaknessratherstrength,doubtratherthanconviction./Afollow-upstudyshowsthatfewcoupleslivingtogetherreallyendinmarriage.Inaword,thosestudentloverscannotfindenoughreasonstojustifytheirchoice.Whattheycanofferallrepresentself-deceptionormisconception(错误想法).Althoughuniversitiesarenotallowedtoforbid
45、studentstoliveoffcampus,theycanstillfindmoreeffectivewaystoconvincethislostgroupofdisadvantages,andimproveteachingandafter-classactivitiestoattractthembacktocampus.On Student Lovers Living TogetherAccordingtoofficialstatistics,thenumberofcollegestudentloverslivingtogetheroffcampusinBeijinghasincreas
46、edbyfourtimesbetween1997and2001.ThisisundeniablytrueofmanyotherplacesinChina.Althoughmanystudentsdonotstronglyobjecttoit,Idontthinkitisadvisableforcollegestudentloverstolivetogetherawayfromcampus.Someloverssaythatlivingtogethercanhelpthemstudybetter,foritcanhelpthemgetridoftheinterferenceofotherstud
47、ents.Thisisactuallynottrue.Whenlivingawayfromcampus,theloverswillalwaysthinkofeachotherratherthantheteachersassignment,andotherunavoidablefamilychoressuchascookingandwashingwillalsotakemuchtimeawaythatmighthavebeenspentonstudy.Besides,manycoursesnowrequiregroupworkorcooperation.Iftheystayawayfromoth
48、erclassmates,howcantheystudythesecourseswell?CON+Refutation:Someloverssaythatlivingtogethercanrelievetheirlonelinessandpressure,butitisnotreallythebestchoice.Ontheonehand,therealreasonfortheirlonelinessisthattheyarenotfocusingtheirmindonstudy.Study,themostimportanttaskforuniversitystudents,canprovet
49、obefascinatingifyoureallyfocusonit./Ontheotherhand,eveniftheirlonelinessisreal,therearemanybetterwaystodealwithit./Forinstance,theycanfindfriendstotakepartinsportsorotherentertainingactivities.Bystayingawayfromotherclassmates,livingtogethercanbeasourceofratherthansolutiontoloneliness.Otherloversargu
50、ethattheymeantogetmarriedaftergraduation,andthisexperiencecanhelpthemtesteachothertoseeiftheyaresuitableformarriedlife.Butthismentalitydoesnotholdwater.Thetwoloversmayreallyloveeachother,butlivingtogethercanactuallyspoilagoodrelationship,becauseitentersintoweaknessratherstrength,doubtratherthanconvi
51、ction./Afollow-upstudyshowsthatfewcoupleslivingtogetherreallyendinmarriage.CON+Refutation:CON+Refutation:Inaword,thosestudentloverscannotfindenoughreasonstojustifytheirchoice.Whattheycanofferallrepresentself-deceptionormisconception(错误想法).Althoughuniversitiesarenotallowedtoforbidstudentstoliveoffcam
52、pus,theycanstillfindmoreeffectivewaystoconvincethislostgroupofdisadvantages,andimproveteachingandafter-classactivitiestoattractthembacktocampus.Pattern1:Thesisstatement:PROidea1PROidea2CON(s)+Refutation(s)ConclusionPattern2:Thesisstatement:CON(s)+Refutation(s)PROidea1PROidea2ConclusionPattern3:Thesi
53、sstatement:CONidea1-RefutationCONidea2-RefutationCONidea3-RefutationConclusionExample:ChildcareCONIdea1Ithasbeenarguedthatchildrenwhoattendchildcarecentersatanearlyagemissoutonimportantearlylearningthatoccursinparent-childinteraction.RefutationHowever,childcarecentersmayactuallyassistchildrenintheir
54、earlylearning.Theygivechildrenanopportunitytomixwithotherchildrenandtodevelopsocialskillsatanearlyage.Indeed,awholerangeoflearningoccursinchildcarecenters.CONidea2Anotherargumentagainsttheuseofchildcarefacilitiesisthatchildrencanbeemotionallydeprivedinthesefacilitiescomparedtothehome.However,parents
55、andchildrenneedtospendsometimeapart.Moreover,childrenbecomelessdependentontheirparentsandparentsthemselvesarelessstressedandmoreeffectivecare-giverswhenthereareperiodsofseparation.Providing Opposing ArgumentsItisimportanttoincludeopposingargumentstoshowyourreaderthatyouhaveconsideredbothsidesofthear
56、gument;youareabletoanticipateandcriticizeanyopposingargumentsbeforetheyareevenstated.Beforewestartsayingthattheopponentsarewrong,weshouldspecifytheiropposingideas.E.g.Somepeoplemaysaythatadolescentsshouldnotleaveuniversityeducation;however,theyarewrong.(Whattheysayisnotwrong.Maybetheirsupportingidea
57、iswrong/irrelevant/insufficient.Weshouldstatetheirsupportingideaspecificallytobeabletorefuteit.)Refuting opposing arguments:Somepeoplemaysaythatadolescentsshouldnotleaveuniversityeducationbecausetheyarenotphysicallyandpsychologicallymatureenoughtocopewiththeproblemsoftherealworld.However,theyforgeto
58、nefact:adolescentscanvoteorstartdrivingattheageof18(insomecountriesevenbeforethatage!),whichprovesthattheyareconsideredphysicallyandpsychologicallymatureatthatage.Whenstatingspecificallywhytheythinklikethat:TheyputforwardthisideabecauseTheyclaimthatsinceTo compromise butprovethattheirargumentisnotpo
59、werfulenough:TheyhaveapointinthinkinglikethatToacertainextenttheyarerightTocompletelydisagree:Afterseeingthisevidence,thereisnowaywecanagreewithwhattheysay.Tosaythattheirargumentisirrelevanttothetopic:Whatwearediscussinghereisnotwhattheyaretryingtoprove.Theirargumentisirrelevant.Strategies used in r
60、efuting the opposing idea:Avoidoverusing“perhaps,maybe,sometimes,mostoften,nearlyalways,Ithink,inmyopinion”.Theywillweakentheforceofyourargument.Peopleshouldtrustmedicinesinceitiseffectiveandscientificallyproven.Reikiisalsoscientificallyprovenanddoesnothavesideeffects.(refutationmethod:insufficientc
61、laim)-Counter argumentsRefutationThesis:Do Reiki instead of taking medicine.SeriousillnessessuchasHIV/AIDSandcancercannotbetreatedwithoutmedicine.Medicinealsocannottreatseriousillnessesifnotdiagnosedatanearlystage.(refutationmethod:opponentsarepartiallycorrect)Reiki,likealternativehealingmethods,req
62、uiresalotoftime.Reikirequireslesstimeifdoneregularly.(refutationmethod:opponentsarecompletelywrong)-Discussion:On the expansion of enrollment to postgraduates under employment pressureBackground:BEIJING,Jan.11(Xinhua)-Finding jobs for college graduates is a growing problem in China.It became an even
63、 harder task for the 6.1 million June graduates after the country began to feel the effects of the global financial crisis in late 2008.Compoundingtheproblemisaround1.5milliongraduateswhofailedtofindjobslastyear,ahalfmillionincreasefrom2007,accordingtodatafromtheMinistryofHumanResourcesandSocialSecu
64、rity(MHRSS).Enrollmentofgraduatestudentsformastersdegreestoseeayear-on-yearincreaseof5%(PeoplesDaily,15-12-2008)TheMinistryofEducationandtheNationalDevelopmentandReformCommissionjointlyissuedacircularcallingforayear-on-yearincreaseofaround5%intheenrollmentofgraduatestudentsformastersdegreesin2009and
65、ayear-on-yearincreaseof1.7%intheenrollmentofdoctoralcandidates.Itwaspointedoutinthecircularthat,withregardtograduateeducationin2009,therateofdoctoralcandidateenrollmentshouldremainbasicallystablewhiletherateofenrollmentofgraduatestudentsformastersdegreesshouldincreaseatamoderatepace.Theenrollmentstr
66、uctureshouldbereadjustedanditsqualityimproved.Thecircularalsorequiresallunitstomakeactiveeffortstopromotereformsofthegraduateeducationsystemtoimprovethequalityofgraduateeducation.Practice1:Outlinewriting:onexpansionofenrollmenttopostgraduatesunderemploymentpressurePractice2WritearefutationparagraphThesis:Ourgovernmentshouldexpandenrollmenttopostgraduatesunderemploymentpressure.1.Expansionofenrollmenttopostgraduatescanhelpincreasethelevelofeducationinourcountry.1.Expansionofenrollmenttopostgradua
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