语言学考研资料

《语言学考研资料》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《语言学考研资料（24页珍藏版）》请在装配图网上搜索。

1、语言学考研资料考研 英语 语言学The traditional Subject-Predicate distinction may over-lap with that between the Theme-Rheme,but they are not always the same.Look at the following examples:a) Jane stands on the table.Subject PredicateTheme Rhemeb)On the table stands Jane.Predicate SubjectTheme RhemeAnother verson o

2、f the same analysis is carried out in terms of Communicative Dynasmism ,CD for short,proposed by Firbas.By CD, Firbas means the extent to which the senence element contributes to the development of the munication.Firbas defined FSP as the distribution of various degrees of CD.In his view,the initial

3、 elements of a sequence carry the lowest degree of CD and with each step forward,the degree of CD es incremental till the element that carries the highest.但他们并不总是一致的。看下面的例子：a) 简 站在桌子上。主语 谓语主位 述位b)桌子上站着简。谓语 主语主位 述位 这种分析法的另一种版本是交际能力。它是由费尔巴斯首次 提出的。费尔巴斯用交际动力表示句子成分对交技发展所起的作 用。费尔巴斯把功能句子观解释为不同程度的交际力的分布。他 认

4、为，句子前面部分承载的交际力最低，然后逐步增加，直到交 际力最大的成分。3.The London School1) IntroductionThe London school refers to the kind of linguistic scholarship in England.J.R.Firth turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academeic subject in Britain.Firth,under the influence of the anthropolosgist B;Malinowski,in

5、fluenced his student M.A.K.Halliday.They all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of language.Thus,London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.3.伦敦学派1) 简介伦敦学派专门用来称呼独具英国特色的语言学研究。J.R 弗 斯使语言学在英国完全成为一门公认的科学。弗斯主要受人类学 家B马林诺夫斯基影响，而他又影响了他的学

6、生M.A.K韩礼德。 三人都强调“语言环境”和语言“系统”的重要性。因此，伦敦学派 也被称为系统语言学和功能语言学。2) Malinowskis TheoriesThough a professor of Anthropology,Malinowski made great contributions concerning the functions of language,According to him:1. Language is a mode of action,rather than a counterpart of thought.考研 英语 语言学2. The meaning o

7、f an utterance does not e from the ideas of the words prising it butfrom its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs3. There are three types of context of situation:situations inwhich speech interrelates with bodilyactivity;narrative situations;situations in which is used t

8、o fill a speech vacuum一phatic munion.2) 马林诺夫斯基的理论 尽管马林诺夫斯基是人类学的教授，但他在语言功能方面却 作出了很大贡献。马林诺夫斯基认为：1. 语言是一种行为模式，而不是什么与思想相对应的东西。2. 话语的意义并不来自于构成话语的词的意义，而是来自 于话语发生的上下文之间的关系。3. 语言环境有三种：言语与当时的身体活动有直接关系的 活动：叙述环境；言语仅被用来填补言语空白的环境寒暄交谈。3) Firths TheoriesInfluenced by Malinowski,Firth regarded language as a social

9、process,rather than simply as a set of agreed-upon semiotics and signs.According to him,language is a means of participation in social activities,a means of doing things and of making others do things,a means of acting and living.Firth saw language as both inborn and acquired,thus the object of ling

10、uistic study is language in actual use.Firth held that meaning is use,and he defined that meaning is the relationship between an element at any level and its context on that level,thus the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the meaning.Firths own study focused on the cont

11、ext of situation as Malinowski did.By context of situation,Firth meant a series of contexts of situation,each smaller one being embedded into a larger,to the extent that all the contexts of situation play essential parts in the whole of the context of culture.He believed that when analyzing a specif

12、ic context of situation .one has to take both the situational context as well as the linguistic context into consideration:3）弗斯的理论 受马林诺夫斯基的影响，弗斯认为语言是种社会过程，而非 仅仅一套约定俗成的符号和信号。他认为，语言是参与社会生活 的工具，是自己做事和使他人做事的手段，是一种行为和生活手 段。弗斯认为，语言既有先天成分又有后天成分。因此语言学的 研究对象是实际中使用的语言。弗斯认为意义就是使用，是不同层次上的成分和该层次上此成分的情景之间的关系。因此，要

13、理解意义，情景是不可缺少的。像马林诺夫斯基一样，弗斯也将语言情景作为研究的重点。关于情景，弗斯还指出在一系列的情景中每一个较小的情景都存在于另一个更大的语言情景之中，因此，所有的语言情景都是整 个文化情景的一个基本组成部分。弗斯认为在进行典型语言情境分析时，还要考虑情景语境和 语言环境：1. The internal relations of the text itselfThe syntagmatic relations between the elements in thestructure;The paradigmatic relations between units in the s

14、ystem.考研 英语 语言学2. The internal relations of the context of situationThe relations between text and non-linguistic elements,andthe general effects;The analytical relations betweenwords,parts of words,phrases and the special elements of the context of situation.1. 文本本身的内部关系结构的成分间的组合关系；系统中的单位的聚合关系。2. 语

15、言情境的内部关系文本和非语言成分之间的关系，以及总体效果；单词、词的部分以及短语与情境的特殊组成部分直接的分析 性关系。4) Halliday and Systemic-Functional GrammarSystemic-Functional Grammar,developed by M.A.K.Halliday,is a socially oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistics theories in the twentieth century.Systemic-

16、Functional Grammar is based on two facts:1. Language users are actually making choices in a set of systems and trying to realize2. different semantic functions in social interaction; Language is inseparable from social activities of man.Thus,it takes actual uses oflanguage as the object of study.One

17、 point to notice is that it takes clause as the basicunit.3. It consists of two inseparable parts:systemic grammar and functional grammar.4) 韩礼德与系统功能语法 韩礼德的系统功能语法是一种具有社会学倾向的功能语言学方法，是二十世纪最具影响力的语言学理论之一。1.2.3. 语言的使用者实际上是在一组系统中进行选择，而且努 力在社会的相互作用中实现不同的语义功能； 语言和人类的社 会活动紧密联系，不可分离。于是系统功能语法把语言的实际运 用作为研究的对象。有

18、一点需要指出的是它以小句作为研究的基 本单位。 系统功能语法包含两部分，两者密不可分：系统语法 和功能语法。1. Systemic grammarThe system is a list of choices that are available in the grammar of a language.For example,the number system in English contains two choices:singular and plural.Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in langua

19、ge as a system network,or meaning potential,and this network consists of subsconsists of subsstes from which language users make choices.1. 系统语法 系统就是存在于存在于语法中的一系列选择。例如，英语中 的“数”的系统，包含两种选择：单数和复数。系统语法的目的是要说明语言作为系统的内部底层关系，它是与意义相关联的可供人们不断选择的若干子系统组成的系统 网络。There are 6 major characteristics of systemic gram

20、mar:It attaches great importance to the sociological aspects of language.It views language as a form of doing rather than a form of knowing.It distinguishes linguistic考研 英语 语言学behavior potential from actual linguistic behavior.It gives a relatively high priority to description of the characteristics

21、 of particular languages and particular varieties of languages.It explains a number of aspects of language in terms of clines.It seeks verification of its hypothese by means of observation from texts and of ststistical techniques.It has as its central the category of the sgory of the system. 系统语法主要有

22、 6 个特点： 非常重视语言的社会学特征。把语言视为一种“行”而不是“知”，区别了语言行为潜势和实 际语言行为。相对重视描述某一特定语言或某一语言的各种变体的特点。用渐变群的形式描述了语言不同侧面的特点。通过对语篇的分析和统计数据来验证自己的假设。 把“系统的范畴”作为核心。2. Functional grammarFunctional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction,based on the position that language system and the forms tha

23、t make it up are inescapably determined by the use or functions which they serve.In other words,language exists to serve certain functions,and social demand on language has helped to shape its structure.Halliday views language development in children as “the mastery of linguistic ”Functions.He propo

24、ses 7 functions in childrens model of language:The instrumental function;e.g.”I want。”The regulatory function;e.g.”Do as I tell you。”The interactional function;e.g.”You and me。”The personal function;e.g.”Here I e.”The heuristic function;e.g.”Tell me why。”The imaginative function;e.g.”Lets pretend.”T

25、he informative function;e.g.”I have something to tell。”Compared to the childrens language,the adultslanguage es much more plex and serves more functions.However,the functional range is reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions.Adults language serves three meta-functions:the ideational

26、function,the interpersonal function,and the textual function2.功能语法 功能语法的目的是要说明语言是社会交往的手段，其基础是 语言系统及其成分不可避免地由他们所提供的作用和功能所决 定。换句话说，语言的存在是为了提供某种功能，而社会对语言 的要求促使语言形成了自身的结构。韩礼德认为儿童的语言发展是对“语言功能的掌握”。他提出 了 7 种儿童语言模式的功能。工具功能；例，“我想 ” 调节功能；例，“照我说的做 ” 交往功能；例，“你和我 ” 个体功能；例，“我来了。” 启发功能；例，“告诉我原因。” 想象功能；例，“假设 ” 考研 英

27、语 语言学 信息功能；例，“我有事要告诉你 ”和儿童语言相比，成年人的语言变得更为复杂，承担了更多 的功能。但其功能范围逐步减少为逐步减少为一套高度符号化和 抽象化的功能。成年人的语言主要有三种元功能：概念功能、人 际功能和语篇功能。i.The ideational functionThe ideational function is to convey new information,to municate a content that is unknown to the hearer.The ideational function mainly consists of transitivi

28、ty and voice.Transitivity is simply the grammar of the clause in its ideational aspect.It consists of 6different processes:Material process,Behavioral process,Mental process,Verbal process,Relational process and Existential process.i概念功能 概念功能是用来传达新的信息，或是给听话者传递一定的未 知内容。概念功能主要包括及物性和语态两部分。及物性就是子句意 义中的概

29、念功能。它包括 6 种不同的过程：物质过程、行为过程、 心理过程、言语过程、关系过程和存在过程。 i i .The interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function embodies all uses of language to express social; and personal relation.This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act.Interpersonal function is r

30、ealized by mood and modality.Mood shows what rolethe speaker selects in the speech situation and what role he assigns to the addressee.Mood is made up of two parts:the Subject and the Finite element Modality specifies if the speaker is expressing his judgment or making a prediction.Except the subjec

31、t and the finite element,the rest of the clause is residue.Residue has three functional elements:predicator,plement,and adjunct.For example,He was lying on his back.Sub. Fin. Predicator AdjunctMood Residueii.人际功能人际功能是充分运用语言来表达社会和个人的关系，包括讲 话者进入语言情境的形成。人际功能是通过语气和情境来实现。 语气表明讲话者选择了某种言语角色，同时也赋予了听话者一种 言语角

32、色。语气包括两部分：主语和限定成分。情态则说明讲话 者是否作出判断和预测。除去主语和限定成分，小句的剩余部分叫剩余部分。剩余部分包括三个功能成分：谓语、补语和附加语。例如，He was lying on his back.主 限定 谓语 附加语语 成分语气 剩余部分3. The textual functionThe textual function refers to the fact that language has a mechanism to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and uni

33、fied text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Although two sentences may have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions,they may be different in terms of textual coherence.For example,考研 英语 语言学a) Mary had a very bad cold last week.Mary went to the doctor

34、.b) Mary had a very bad cold last week and went to the doctor.The textual function is realized as the thematic structure of the clause as a message.The two main constitutes are Theme and Rheme.4. 语篇功能语篇功能是指语言中存在着一种机制将口头或书面的话语 组织成连贯统一的语篇，这种机制使实际的言语区别于一系列的 随意的句子。概念功能和人际功能完全相同的两个句子可以有不 同的语篇功能。例如，a) 玛丽上

35、周得了重感冒。玛丽去看医生。b) 玛丽上周得了重感冒去看医生了。语篇功能是通过将小句的主题结构作为信息来实现的。两个 主要构成部分是主位和述位。4. American Structuralism1) IntroductionAmerican Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics that emerged in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.It developed differently from that of Europe under

36、the leadership of the anthropologist F.Boas.The development of American Structuralism can be roughly classified into three stages: a. Boas and Sapir Period(19111952)b. Bloomfieldian Period(19331950)c.Post- Bloomfieldian Period(19521956)4.美国结构主义1) 简介美国结构主义是共时语言学的一个分支，独立的诞生于二十 世纪初的美国。在人类语言学家博厄斯的领导下，美国

37、结构主义 以不同于欧洲的传统风格发展着。美国结构主义的发展大致可以分为下面三个阶段：a. 博厄斯和萨丕尔时期(19111952)b. 布龙菲尔德时期(19331950)c后布龙菲尔德时期(1952-1956)2) Early Period:Boas and SapirBoas was an anthropologist,worked as oranzier of a survey of the many indigenous languages of America north of Mexico.In the survey of the indigenous languages,Boas d

38、iscussed the framework of descriptive approach to language.He held that such descriptions consist of three parts:the sound of languages,the semantic categories of linguistic expression,and the process of grammatical bination in semantic expression.He held that every language has its system of sounds

39、 and grammatical system;therefore,when approaching language,one cannot impose the grammatical categories of Indo-European languages upon all other languages.Boas descriptive methods paved the way for American descriptive linguistics and influenced generations of linguistsSapir,an eminent anthropogic

40、al linguist,undertook the description of American Indian languages after Boas method,using a native informant in his own cultural考研 英语 语言学surroundings,which is a novel experience.In his famous book Language:An introduction to the Study of Speech,he started from an anthropological view-point to descr

41、ibe the nature of language and its development,with his main focus on typology.Sapir defines language as”a purely human and non- instinctive method of municating ideas,emotions and desires by means of municating ideas,emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols”.Sapir a

42、lso noticed the universal features of language.Though there are formal differences among different languages,their basic frameworks(distinct phonetic systems,concrete binations of sound and meanings,etc.)are highly developed.2) 早期：博厄斯和萨丕尔 作为北美人类学方面的专家，博厄斯成为调查墨西哥以北众 多美洲印第安土著语的发起人。在土著语的研究过程中，博厄斯论述了描写语

43、言学的框架。 他认为这种描写应包括三个部分：语言的语音、语言表达的语义 范畴和表达语义的语法组合过程。他认为每一种语言都有它自己 的语音系统和语法系统；因此，研究语言时，我们不能把印欧语 的语法范畴强加在所有其他语言上。博厄斯的描写语言的方法不 但为美国描写语言学铺平了道路，而且影响了几代语言学家。杰出的人类语言学家，萨丕尔，也按照博厄斯的方法去描写 美洲印第安语，并且用当地土著居民作为受访人，这算是一种新 的尝试。在他的唯一的专著语言论：言语研究导论中，萨丕尔从 人类学的角度出发来描写语言的特点及其发展，焦点放在了类型 学上。萨丕尔将语言定义为“语言是纯粹认为的、非本能的、通过自 觉制造出来

44、的符号系统来传达观念、情绪和欲望的方法”。萨丕尔还注意到语言的普遍性。除去形式上的差别，各种语 言的基本框架(明晰的语音系统、声音与意义的具体结合等)都 已发展得十分完善。3) Bloomfieldian PeriodL.Bloomfield(18871949)was the principal representativeof American descriptive linguistics.The period between 1933 and 1950in the history of American linguistics is known as Bloomfieldian Era,

45、in which American descriptive linguistics formally came into being and reached its prime development.Bloomfields Language was once held the model of scientific methodology.For Bloomfield,linguistics is a branch of psychology,and specifically of the positivitic brand of psychology known as behavioris

46、m.Behaviorism is a principle of scientific method,based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced.It holds that children learn language through a chain of “stimulus-response reinforcement”,and the adults use of language is also a process of stimulus-r esponse .It

47、s famous for mula is SrsR.Here S stands for practical stimulus,r stands for the substitude reaction of speech,s stands for the substitute stimulus,and R stands for external practical reaction.Bloomfield also touched upon the application of linguistics to language teaching and criticized traditional

48、grammar.He believed that learning a language involves constant practice and repetition in real situations.3) 布龙菲尔德时期 布龙菲尔德(1887-1949)是美国描写语言学的首要代表。 1933-1950 这段时间在考研 英语 语言学美国语言学历史上被称为“布龙菲尔德时期”。也是在这段时 期，美国的描写语言学开始成形并迎来了它的最初发展阶段。布龙菲尔德的语言一书被奉为科学的方法论之典范。在 布龙菲尔德看来，语言学是心理学的一个分支，确切的说是心理 学中带有实证主义特征的分支，通常被称作

49、行为主义。行为主义 是一种科学研究方法，其理论基础是人们无法认识他们未经历的 事情。行为主义认为儿童对语言的学习是通过一连串的“刺激-反 应强化”来达到的，而成年人对语言的使用也是“刺激-反应”的过 程。布龙菲尔德从中提出了一个著名的公式：SrsR。在这个公式里，S代表外部刺激，代表语言的代替反应，s 代表语言的代替性刺激，R代表外部的实际反应。布龙菲尔德还谈到语言学对语言教学的应用，并对传统语法 提出批评。他认为学习语言需要在真实的情境下进行长期的练习 和重复。4) Post- Bloomfieldian PeriodPost-Bloomfieldian linguistics focuse

50、d on direct observation,which was characterized by a strict empiricism.Its goal was to devise explicit discovery procedures to enable the puter to process raw data about any language and form a plete grammar without intervention by the human linguists.American Methods in Structural Linguistics is ge

51、nerally takenas marking the maturity of American descriptive linguistics.Harris gave the fullest expression of the Discovery Procedure approach to linguistics,characterized by accurate analytical procedures and high degree of formalization.The most emient figure in pushing forward the structuralist

52、tradition is K.Pike,who and his followers give a special name for their technique of linguistic analysis-tagmemics.For Pike,a language has its own hierarchical systems independent of meaning,and three interrelated hierarchies:phological,grammatical,and referential.On each level of the three hierarch

53、ies,there are 4linguistic units having the 4 following features:Slot,Class,Role,and Cohesion.These basic units are called grammatical units,or tagmemes.4）后布龙菲尔德时期 后布龙菲尔德时期语言学以直接观察为中心，系严格彻底的 经验主义，发明设计了一套“发现程序”，用计算机处理原始的语 言数据，借此完成一套完整的，没有语言学家参与的语法。美国语言学家，像哈里斯、霍凯特、特雷格、史密斯等都是 这一时期的代表。哈里斯的结构语言学的方法一书被普遍看作

54、是美国描写 语言学成熟的标志。哈里斯给出了发现程序最为完整全面的表述 其主要特点是精密的分析步骤和高度的形式化。物应属派克了。他和他的后继者因其语言分析手法法位学而闻名。派克认为，语言有独立于意义之外的等级系统，所有的语言 有三种相互关联的等级系统。这三种等级系统中的每一个层次都有具有轨位、类 别、作用和接应这四个特点的语言单位。这些基本的单位就叫做 语法单位，简称法位。5. Transformational-Generative Grammar1) IntroductionThe publication of Noam Chomskys Syntatic Structures in 1957

55、 marked the beginning of the考研 英语 语言学TGgrammar.Contrary to Bloomfields data-oriented discovery procedure,Chomsky insists on the hypothesisdeduction method and his research is called evaluation process.TGgrammar has been 5 stages of development:the classical theory,the standard theory,the extended st

56、andard theory,the revised extended standard theory and minimalist program.5.转换-生成语法1）简介乔姆斯基1957 年出版的语法结构标志着转换-生成语法 的形成。使用被称作“评价过程”的“假设-演绎”的方法，与布龙菲 尔德的发现程序相对。该语法已经经历了 5 个发展阶段：古典理 论、标准理论、扩展的标准理论、修正的扩展的标准理论和最简 方案。2） The Innateness HypothesisChomsky believes that language is innate,and that children are born with a Language Acquisition Device（LAD）,which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning, 2）天赋假设 乔姆斯基认为语言是天生的，儿童天生具有一种学习语言的 能力，叫做“语言习得机制（LAD） ”，这是一种很适合他们