Qualitative-Research-Methods-(Research-Method)

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1、Qualitative-Research-Qualitative-Research-Methods-(Research-Methods-(Research-Method)Method)Ch 42Three Categories of Research1.Qualitative research:research involving collecting,analyzing,and interpreting data by observing what people do and sayThe“soft side”of researchResponses do not usually invol

2、ve numbers except if you code them(i.e.,quantify qualitative answers)2.Quantitative research:research involving the use of structured questions in which response options have been predetermined and a large number of respondents involvedThe“hard side”of researchResponses involve numbersCh 83Table 6.1

3、 Qualitative Versus Quantitative ResearchThree Categories of Research3.Pluralistic(or mixed)research:combination of both quantitative and qualitative research methods in order to gain the advantages of bothQualitative Research usually comes firstOpen researchers eyesGain first-hand knowledge Help cr

4、ystallize the problemServes as a foundation for quantitative researchQuantitative Research usually comes nextCh 85Example:Gillette Supports Equal Rights for Women:A Close ShavePink Passion Venus introduced in 2003.The sales of Gillettes womens products are expected to increase to more than$1 billion

5、 by 2005Venus is based on Sensor for WomenRely heavily on qualitative researchOne-on-one(individual)interview with 30 women from different segments of the potential target marketProvides extensive of the respondents feelings in a more personal settingFindings:Women shave very differently from menWom

6、en shave more surface area than men but only shave two or three times per weekWomen prefer to shave in the shower and under dim lightingBut men shave in front of a mirrorWomen prefer razors with a firm grip and those that give a clean,smooth shaveA survey with 500 women was conducted to substantiate

7、(confirm)these findingsThis is QuantitativeQualitativeSteps in Conducting Qualitative Research1)Determine the qualitative research approach(paradigm)if necessary2)Determine the qualitative data collection method(s)3)Qualitative data analysisThematic analysis4)Storytelling(report writing)Describe the

8、 themes and cite the data that grounds(i.e.,justify)the themesCh 87Approaches(Paradigms)of Qualitative Research MethodsCh 88I.Narrative ResearchIt studies the experiences expressed in lived and told stories of individualsA narrative is understood as a spoken or written text given an account of an ev

9、ent/action or series of events/actions,chronologically connectedFocusing on studying 1 or 2 individuals,gathering data through the collection of their stories,experiences,and chronologically ordering the meaning of those experiencesCh 89II.PhenomenologyIt describes the meaning for several individual

10、s of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon(e.g.,preference of luxury brands,pathological gambling,Internet addiction)I.e.,describing what all participants have in common as they experience a phenomenonThe objective is to reduce individual experiences with a phenomenon to a description

11、 of the universal essencePhenomenology is not only a description,but it is also an interpretive process in which the researcher makes an interpretation of the meaning of the lived experienceBest use to understand a group of individuals common or shared experiences of a phenomenon10Steps for Phenomen

12、ology1.Identify the phenomenon of interest2.Collect data from individuals who have experienced the phenomenonInterview 5 25 individuals.Other forms of data include observations,journals,art,music,written responses,films,poetry3.Ask participants at least two broad,general questionsWhat have you exper

13、ienced in terms of the phenomenon?What context or situations have you typically influenced or affected your experiences of the phenomenon?4.Phenomenological data analysisHighlight significant statements,sentences,or quotes that provide an understanding of how the participants experienced the phenome

14、nonDevelop clusters of meaning from these statements into themes5.Use these statements and themes to write a description of what the participants experienced(i.e.,textual description)and include the context/setting that influenced how participants experienced the phenomenon(i.e.,structural descripti

15、on)6.Present the essence of the phenomenon(common experience)III.Case StudyCase study research involves the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within a bounded system(i.e.,a setting or a context)It is a preferred method when(a)how or why questions are being posed,(b)the investigato

16、r has little control over events,and(c)the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon with a real-life contextIt tries to illuminate a decision or set of decisions:why they were taken,how they were implemented,and with what resultInvolve multiple sources of information(e.g.,observations,interviews,audiov

17、isual materials,documents)and reports a case description and case-based themesCh 812IV.EthnographyIt is a descriptive study of a group and its behavior,characteristics,and cultureThe researcher describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of values,behaviors,beliefs,and language of a cul

18、ture-sharing groupIt involves extended observations of the group,most often through participant observationThe researcher immerses in the data-to-day lives of the people and observes and interviews the group participantsPay close attention to words,metaphors,symbols,and stories from the participants

19、Study the meaning of the behavior,the language,and the interaction among members of the groupResearchers must be“present and known”but not interfere with normal behaviors13Steps for Ethnography1.Identify and locate a culture-sharing group to study2.Select cultural themes or issues to study about the

20、 group Begins by examining people in interaction in ordinary setting and by attempting to discern pervasive patterns(e.g.,3.Gather information where the group works and lives(i.e.,fieldwork)Documenting daily lives of individuals at the site through observations,interviews,and content analysis of wri

21、tten/audiovisual materials4.Forge a working set of rules or patterns as the final product of this analysisThe final product is a holistic cultural portrait of the group that incorporates the views of the participants(emic)and the views of the researcher(etic)14V.Grounded TheoryAn approach that moves

22、 beyond description and to generate or discover a theory,an abstract analytical schema of a processThis theory development is grounded in the data from the field through interactions and social processes of peopleA category represents a unit of information composed of events,happenings,and instances

23、Identify a core phenomenon and its categories(i.e.,themes)Develop hypotheses that interrelate the categories and consequence,and a story that describes the interrelationshipCh 815Steps for Grounded Theory Method1.Raise research questions to(a)understand how individuals experience the process and ide

24、ntify the steps in the process,(b)identify the core phenomenon and categories(e.g.,travel motivation,brand avoidance,restaurant as a third-place),(c)identify the causes and consequences(i.e.,antecedents and outcomes)2.Conduct 20 60 in-depth interviews to answer the questions3.Form categories of info

25、rmation about the phenomenon being studies by segmenting informationFind several properties(subcategories or attributes)within each category,and show the extreme possibilities on a continuum4.Explores categories of conditions that influence the phenomenon and their consequencesOr Write a“story line”

26、that connects the categories5.End that this point or empirical verification via quantitative data16Anthonys InsightsThere are more qualitative research paradigms/approaches e.g.,content analysis on audiovisual materialsThese approaches share some similarities and differencesHowever,what they are in

27、common is the inductive process(i.e.,induce theories)Which approach is best depends on the research objective and the data available(i.e.,feasibility)You do not need to adhere to a specific qualitative research approach if you simply want explore a social phenomenon without generating theories and t

28、hemesThe terminologies used in qualitative research varies depending on the research paradigm17Qualitative Data Analysis:Thematic AnalysisCh 818Thematic AnalysisThematic analysis is a general method for qualitative analysis of transcripts or other similar text data sourcesIt deals with data that inv

29、olves the creation and application of codes to dataThe outputs are themes and their meaning units as well as how themes relate to each other without the dataWhat counts as a theme depends on theory,industry practice,research experience,the data itself,and a lot of creativities!The data being analyze

30、d might take any formsInterview transcript,field notes,documents,video footage,photographsCh 819Steps for Thematic Analysis1.Prepare data and transcriptTranscribe the data into text accurately(i.e.,Q&As exactly as they are collected)2.Identify meaning unitsA meaning units(i.e.,theme instance,propert

31、y,aspect,attribute,characteristic)is a string of text that expresses a single coherent thoughtCode each meaning unit for later tracking and organization3.Group patterned meaning unitsIdentify and group recurring meaning unitsThey can be sub-themes(i.e.,sub-categories)Ch 820Steps for Thematic Analysi

32、s4.Generate Theme statementsFor each group of meaning units,identify or generate a word or brief phrase stating the meaning shared in all instances of the meaning unitsThese words/phases are basic themes(or categories)5.Create a thematic table of themes and meaning units For each theme,identify all

33、the meaning units which are examples of the theme(instances of a theme)6.Write out a summary of the themesWrite a brief narrative summarizing the main issues being investigatedWrite an introductory sentence or paragraph to provide context to the theme statementsWrite a declarative sentence of to des

34、cribe each themeEnsure that the theme statement adequately and accurately express their original meaning21ThemesA theme is also refer to as concept or categoryIt is a characteristic or an aspect of a phenomenonAn abstract representation of an event,object,or action/interaction that a researcher iden

35、tifies as being significant in the dataThat is,induce themes from text or other materialsThrough coding(grounded theorists)or sometimes referred to as qualitative analysis(content analysts)Ch 822Coding and Theme IdentificationCoding(or thematic coding)in qualitative research refers to the creation o

36、f categories(themes)in relation to dataThe grouping together of different instances of datum under an umbrella term that can enable them to be regarded as“of the same type”It is a process of giving a code(i.e.,a name/term,a definition,and descriptions)to a theme and sub-themes(sub-categories)Referre

37、d to as opening codingThe researcher may also need to relate the themes to each otherReferred to as relational coding23Some Theme Identification TechniquesWord RepetitionsList out and count the wordsIndigenous CategoriesLook for local terms that may sound(un)familiar or used in an(un)familiar wayUse

38、d to explore novel phenomena and themesKey-words-in-contextLook at the keywords of how they are used in context of the textSocial science queriesExamine the setting and context,the perspectives of the informants,and informants ways of thinking about people,objects,processes,activities,events,and rel

39、ationshipsRead more24Process in Coding and Theme IdentificationIdentify,categorize,and label the themes or patterns in your data.Review your transcripts,reports,and notes,indicating major themes in the margins.Make a list of the themes as you read Read the transcript and keep your evaluation questio

40、ns in mindExample:Employment motivation Read through the transcript and look for examples that fit themes related to“employee needs,”“career goals,”“family and personal constraints,”and“job application criteria”It is perfectly acceptable to have a list of themes ahead of time(based on theory)and to

41、add themes as you readYou can also combine themes into a single theme or separate a theme into several themes as you readOrganize your themes and transcriptsLink the themes and the transcripts through e.g.,colors,notes,tables25Example 1:Consumer needs in restaurants(Core phenomenon)Theme 1:Physical

42、benefits:Place-as-Practical Cognitive loyalty)Food,price,ambient conditions,space/layout,etc.Theme 2:Social benefits:Place-as-Gathering Community loyaltyRemedy/prevent social loneliness through companionship,a place for social gathering,a means to share information,etc.Theme 3:Emotional benefits:Pla

43、ce-as-Home Ultimate loyaltyRemedy/prevent emotional loneliness through emotional support;a place to express feelings:joy,love,fun,etc.Coding and Theme Identification ExampleCh 826Example 2:Employment Motivation(Core Phenomenon)Theme 1:Job Benefits with three sub-themes(meaning units,properties,attri

44、butes,characteristics,or aspects)(1)Pay Benefits(salary,bonus,commission,etc.)(2)Health benefits(sick leave,medical insurance,etc.)(3)Vacation(paid leave,travel allowance,etc.)Theme 2:and so onCoding and Theme Identification ExampleCh 827Thematic Table ExampleTheme 1:Job Benefits with three sub-them

45、es(meaning units,attributes,characteristics)(1)Pay Benefits(salary,bonus,commission,etc.)(2)Health benefits(sick leave,medical insurance,etc.)(3)Vacation(paid leave,travel allowance,etc.)ThemesMeaning unitsPay benefitsSalary,bonus,commissionHealth benefitsSick leave,medical insurance,health clubVaca

46、tionPaid leave,travel allowanceCh 828Thematic Table ExampleThemesMeaning units/PropertiesPay benefitsSalary,bonus,commissionHealth benefitsSick leave,medical insurance,health clubVacationPaid leave,travel allowanceThemesSub-themesMeaning units/PropertiesJob BenefitsPay benefitsSalary,bonus,commissio

47、nHealth benefitsSick leave,medical insurance,health clubVacationPaid leave,travel allowanceTheme 2Theme 3Ch 829Class of Qualitative Data Collection Methodsi.Observationsii.Focus groupiii.In-depth interviewiv.Projectivev.Others(aside)a.Documents and other printed materialsb.Audiovisual materialsCh 83

48、0I.Observation TechniquesObservation methods:techniques in which the researcher relies on his or her powers of observation rather than communicating with a person in order to obtain informationCh 831Observation TechniquesTypes of observation:Direct versus indirectDisguised versus undisguisedStructur

49、ed versus unstructuredHuman versus mechanicalCh 832Observation TechniquesDirect versus IndirectDirect observation:observing behavior as it occursIndirect observation:observing the effects or results of the behavior rather than the behavior itselfArchives:e.g.,sales recordsPhysical traces:e.g.,litter

50、 auditCh 833Observation TechniquesDisguised versus UndisguisedDisguised observation:subject is unaware that he or she is being observedE.g.,Mystery shopper,online tracking deviceUndisguised observation:respondent is aware of observationE.g.,Laboratory settings,camera recording,People Meters(Nielsen

51、Media)Ch 834Observation TechniquesStructured versus UnstructuredStructured observation:researcher identifies beforehand which behaviors are to be observed and recordedAll other behaviors are ignoredUnstructured observation:no restriction is placed on what the observer would note:all behavior in the

52、episode under study is monitoredOften used in exploratory researchCh 835Observation TechniquesHuman versus MechanicalHuman observation:observer is a person hired by the researcher,or,perhaps the observer is the researcherMechanical observation:human observer is replaced with some form of static obse

53、rving deviceOften used when it is too expensive to use human observersE.g.,scanner,online tracking deviceCh 836Observation TechniquesAdvantages of Observational DataInsight into actual,not reported,behaviorsNo chance for recall errorSubjects are observed while engaged in the actBetter accuracyLess c

54、ostCh 837Home Depot:An Example of Direct ObservationShopper/Store Use ProfileAverage time in store:32.4(minutes)Customer party size:1.2(persons)Average expenditures:57.34(dollars)Payment method73.0%(credit card)Number of aisles traveled:5.7Requests for assistance:0.5Stops and looks at items5.4Items

55、handled per stop2.1Total items handled9.3Items purchased2.5Product Categories of PurchasesAppliances10%Hand tools22%Electrical31%Plumbing14%Roofing3%Garden35%Other26%We know WHATBUT,We dont know WHY!Ch 838Observation TechniquesLimitations of Observational DataThe limitations inherent in qualitative

56、researchSmall number of subjectsInability to pry beneath the behavior observedSubjective interpretationsMotivations,attitudes,and other internal conditions are unobservedwe dont know why?Ch 839II.Focus GroupsFocus groups are small groups of people brought together and guided by a moderator through a

57、n unstructured,spontaneous discussion for the purpose of gaining information relevant to the research problem.The moderators task is to ensure that open discussion is“focused”on some area of interestCh 840Objectives of Focus Groups1.To generate ideasE.g.,design new product choices and service requir

58、ement2.To understand consumer vocabulary3.To reveal consumer needs,motives,perceptions,and attitudes about product or services4.To understanding findings from quantitative studiesExample:Warner-Lambert uses focus groups to gain understanding in consumer lifestyles,values,and purchase patternsCh 841T

59、ypes of Focus GroupsTraditional:Select 6 to 12 persons and meet in a dedicated room with one-way mirror for client viewing,for about two hours.The group size,setting,and duration could varyNeed video,voice recording,or note takingAnthonys Rule of ThumbGroup size:less than 10(minigroup:4 5)Duration:w

60、ithin an hourSetting:comfortable with food and drinksCh 842Types of Focus GroupsNontraditional:Online with client viewing from distant locations;may have 25 or even 50 respondents;allow client interaction;may take place in nontraditional locations.However,try to constrain the group to within 10 resp

61、ondentsOnline focus groups are a form of nontraditional focus groups.Ch 843Advantages of Focus GroupsDisadvantagesGenerate fresh ideasImmediacy and richness of the commentsWide rage of informationAllow clients to observe their participantsInteraction and creativityResponding to each others commentsU

62、nexpected reactionsMay be directed at understanding a wide variety of issues Allow fairly easy access to special respondent groups Representativeness of participantsUnstructured responses are hard to code,analyze,and difficult to interpretHigh cost per participantDifficult to moderateThe quality of

63、the results depends on the moderatorDesign the Focus Group EnvironmentRecruit and Select Focus Group ParticipantsSelect a ModeratorPrepare the Discussion Guide(or Protocol)Conduct the Group Interview(Discussion)Prepare the Focus Group Report(summarize findings)Figure 6.5 Procedure for Conducting a F

64、ocus GroupProcedure for Conducting a Focus GroupUnderstand the problem and objective of the focus-groupFocus Group Facility Floor PlanSource:Market Trends()Ch 846Conducting the Focus Group InterviewParticipants(or respondents)mustnBe representative to the target marketThe moderator mustnEstablish ra

65、pport(friendly relationship)with the group nState the rules of group interactionnSet objectivesnProbe the respondents and provoke intense discussion in the relevant areasnAttempt to summarize the groups response to determine the extent to agreementTable 8.1 Focus Group Moderators“Tricks of the Trade

66、”Be prepared,energized,nice but firm,and provide a comfortable experience to participantsBuild rapportEye contact,learn names,welcome participantsDrift back into focusRemind them to focus on the topic,“will come back on the topic,”“interesting,but not the subject of interest,”“talk about it afterwards”Encourage discussion on deeper thingsPlay nave or dumb,pair respondents,use probes:“tell me more,”“why?”“please elaborate,”“be specific”The Proper Use of Focus GroupsFocus groups should be used whe