AnIntroductiontoLinguistics《语言学概论》byHuYining.ppt

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1、An Introduction to Linguistics 语言学概论 by Hu Yining About the course Linguistics is a university course for English majors in their 3rd or 4th year and it involves many fields of research (e.g. psychology, sociology, philosophy), so its not surprising if you find it difficult at the beginning. Its a m

2、ust for language students to learn something about linguistics and very important for those who want to do further study after graduation. The course will be given mainly in English, but in Chinese when necessary. A few requests: Attend the course regularly since its a compulsory course . Not an opt

3、ional one. No absence from class without reasonable reasons. Take notes, remember the terminal words and facts, and do the revision. Continuous assessment will be given for the course, so fulfill all the assignments satisfactorily including the Further Reading part at the back of the textbook (P.275

4、-298). A list of reference books: 1. 语言学教程 (英语版 ), 胡壮麟 , 北京大学出版社 。 2. 语言学概论 王德春 ， 上海外语教育出版社 。 3. 现代英语语言学概论 （ 英语版 ） 戴炜栋 , 上海外语教育 出版社 。 4. 现代语言学 何兆熊 梅德明 ， 外语教学与研究出版社 5. 简明英语语言学教程 （ 英语版 ） 戴炜栋等 ， 上海外 语教育出版社 6. 语言学和语言的应用 王宗炎 ， 上海外语教育出版社 7. 语言学 H.G.Widdowson， 上海外语教育出版社 8. 语言学入门 （ 英语版 ） Stuart C. Poole 外语教

5、学与 研究出版社 Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics The Nature of Language (P.1P.13) What is language? As human beings, we can feel the existence of language everywhere. However, very few of us know the true nature of language. There is remarkable uncertainty as how language really functions in human commun

6、ication. Great efforts have been made to define the nature of language from different points of view (See the 4 ones on P.1). Some additional ones: Language is the most frequently used and most highly developed form of human communication we possess. David Crystal 语言是音义结合的词汇和语法的体系 ， 是人 类最重要的工具 ， 是人类

7、思维的工具 ， 也是 社会上传递信息的工具 。 王德春 Unfortunately, a perfect and satisfactory definition has yet to come. Despite the differences in their views, many linguists have agreed to accept the view that Language is, in essence, a system of symbols designed for the purpose of human communication. （ 就其本质而言 ， 语言是人类以

8、交际为目的而设计 的一套符号系统 ） . They have come to a general agreement about the following important features that are typical of the nature of human languages. The defining properties of human language (语言的 特性 ) Design features（ 识别特征 ） : The possession of language most clearly distinguishes man from other anim

9、als. Human language has five features: 1. Creativity（ 创造性 ） We all have the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages. （ 在母语所规定的限制范围内 ， 人可以在构词 、 造句 、 理 解句子方面有着无限的创造力 。 ） 2. Arbitrariness（ 任意性 ） Except the very few onomatopoeic words (e.g. c

10、uckoo, mew, bang, ding-dong, ping-pang), there is no necessary relationship between the sign/sound and what the sign/sound means (e.g. a dog, un chien, 狗 )（ 除了极少数拟声词之外 ， 语言中大部 分的词与其所表示的意思之间都没有内在 的 、 必然的联系 。 完全是一种任意的选定 .) 3. Duality of structure (or double articulation)（ 结构 的双重性 ） : This property is

11、usually claimed to be unique to humans. Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings Higher level Language is a combination of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words). Lower level Language is a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in

12、 themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning (such as letters, phonetic symbols.) (* Why is duality regarded as an important feature of human language? Because: i. A far greater number of messages can be sent; ii. No animal communication possesses it. ) 4. Displacement（ 不受时空限制性 ） Human la

13、nguage can cope with any subject what ever, and it does not matter how far away the topic is in time and space. （ 语言可以用来表达任何时间 、 任 何地点的任何抽象或具体的人 、 事 、 物 ） . 5.Cultural transmission （ 文化传递特性 /从头学 的必要性 ） The details of the linguistic system must be learned anew from the beginning by each speaker. With

14、out the environment of language and communication, language cant be acquired . （ 语言非遗传所得 ， 人人都得从头学 起 。 没有语言 环境 ， 没有交流环境 ， 语言是无法习得的 ） . 1.1.1 Language Is Systematic (P.2) - This property is usually claimed to be unique to humans. Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of so

15、unds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language. - Human language operated on two levels of structure. At one level, elements have no meaning themselves. They have meaning when combined to form units at another level. - In the meaning system, these units of meaning can be arran

16、ged in an infinitive number of ways to express both simple and complicated ideas. A language offers its speaker the opportunity to talk about anything. The number of words in a language is relatively finite but their possible combination can be infinite. The syntax of a language may deal with the or

17、dering of words, which actually is the rules for the formation of sentences and parts of sentences such as phrases and clauses. (Have a look at the exercises at the back of this part on P. 3.) 1.1.2 Language Is Symbolic (P.3-5) People use signs to communicate, which means that language involves sign

18、s. The way in which people communicate through signs and images, or the study of it is referred to as semiology or semiotics. Roland Barthes and others extend semiology to include complex cultural forms of communication such as painting, music, films, theatre, dance, clothing, advertising, architect

19、ure, literature, and even food. Traditionally, signs are divided into natural signs and conventional signs. According to Traugott 2) Children automatically learn a language as they grow up. There is normally no tutoring, but with writing, the learning process is different. The development of reading

20、 proficiency depends to a great degree upon the pedagogical skills or teachers. 3) The spoken form came earlier than the written in human history. The written form of any language is always much more recent than the spoken. 4) Writing is based on speech. Writing system represents some levels of the

21、spoken language, such as distinct words, syllables, or sounds. 5) People use spoken language more often than writing. People use the spoken form more frequently than writing as a basic form of verbal communication. (Have a look at the exercises at the back of this part on P. 10.) 1.1.5 Language Is H

22、uman Specific (P. 10.) There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication system of any other species. Attempts to teach animals more complicated systems have ended in failure. Human children can acquire language with ease, and without intensive and directed

23、instruction. Yet, animals lack the capacity to learn. They do not have the mental capacity to be communicatively creative. The differences between human language and animal communication: Language has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space. Humans have the ability to produce an

24、d understand an indefinite number of novel utterances (creativity/openness/productivity). No animal can communicate creatively with another animal. Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication. Human languages have very much in common, but they differ fr

25、om one another on many specific points Language is complex in its structure. Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any known animal communication system. Animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended. People can talk about anything t

26、hey can observe or imagine. Humans can perform acts with language just as they can with objects of different kinds. (Have a look at the exercises at the back of this part on P. 12.) 1.1.6. Language Is Used for Communication Language is used for communication. Language is the result of our communicat

27、ion needs. Its attractiveness comes from its social utility. Human beings communicate in ways different from those used by any species. Through language we can do things animals can not do. It is by the use of language that we can transmit our social heritage from one generation to the next. Two-way

28、 communication occurs frequently when the sending and receiving functions are performed with equal frequency by two or more persons. With the growth in foreign travel, the migration of people to other countries, and expansion of international trade, there has been an increase in intercultural commun

29、ication across national and ethnic borders. (Discuss the exercises at the back of this part on P. 13.) 1.2 The Functions of Language (P.1420) The term communication can be used to cover most of the function of language. But the function of language is varied, in terms of using the language to chat,

30、to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet people, etc. Language functions in our society as a principal means of communication. It also functions as social control. It is not only a psychological phenomenon, but also a social fact. Language is not a self-contained system, but entirely d

31、ependent on the society in which it is used. We must study meaning with reference to an analysis of the functions of language in any given culture. Malinowski distinguishes three major functions of language: the pragmatic （ 语用的 ， 务实的 ） function: language as a form of action; the magical function: la

32、nguage as a means of control over environment; the phatic( 寒暄的 ， 社交的 ) function ： language as a means to help establish and maintain social relations. We can categorize the functions of language into general functions and metafunctions (元功能 ， 纯理功能 ). General functions refer to the particular individ

33、ual uses of language while metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use. 1.2.1 General Functions of Language Language enables humans to do many things, thus serving different functions in the society. Finch lists the following 7 general functions of language: 1.2.

34、1.1 Physiological Function (生理功能发泄 、 释 放情绪 ) Language can help get rid of nervous or physical energy. This function is also known as the emotive or expressive function of language. There are many emotive utterances in our daily life which serve no communicative purpose but allow us to release inner

35、feelings (e.g. Shoot! 快呀 ！ 踢呀 ！ ). A great deal of what we say when angry is simply to relieve our physical and nervous energy caused by emotional distress (e.g. bad language, swear words, obscenities, and taboos). 1.2.1.2 Phatic Function (寒暄功能 ， 社交功能 ) Language can serve the function of creating or

36、 maintaining social relationship between speakers. We often use language simply to express our willingness to be sociable. No factual content is involved (Different ways of greetings in different countries). They are just conversation-fillers. In this sense, language can act as a form of social bond

37、ing that links people together. Failure to observe these social courtesies can cause considerable embarrassment and even bad feelings. Cultures vary greatly in the topics which they permit as phatic communication (e.g. Lovely day, isnt it? 吃过了吗 ？ ) The phatic use of language is mainly spoken but the

38、re are some written equivalents (e.g. Dear Sir/Madam, Yours faithfully) . 1.2.1.3 Recording Function (记录功能不受 时空限制性 ) Language allows us to record things we wish to remember. It might be a short-term shopping list or a long-term diary or history of some kind. This function of language is represented

39、by all kinds of record-keeping, such as historical records, geographical surveys, business accounts, and data banks. Without language, it would be impossible for us to trace the history of humans and modern commercial life would be impossible. This function is the most important function behind the

40、development of language from being an oral medium to becoming a written one. 1.2.1.4 Identifying Function (识别功能 语言的任 意性 ) Language also allows us to identify, with considerable precise, an enormous array of objects and events. Without language, it would be very difficult to make sense of the world a

41、round us. Because we know the names of things, we can refer to them quickly and accurately in good order. Names are made up and essentially arbitrary. To call a table a chair would not change the reality of the thing. Words do not exist in isolation but are part of the social network. 1.2.1.5 Reason

42、ing Function (论证 、 推理功能 ) Much of our thinking is done with words or, to be more exact, in words. So, language is commonly regarded as a tool of thoughts. When we have ideas forming in our minds, we need to find the appropriate words to express these ideas. Our ideas are coded in language. Although

43、the relationship between language and the mind is complicated, speaking and writing are forms of thoughts. This is why most people feel that they have not really understood something until they have been able to express it in language. (How about 只能意会 ， 不能言传 ” ？ ) A problem is that the meaning of ma

44、ny words are not stable and as a consequence it is difficult to think with any precision. Words mean different things to different people and may have different connotations （ e.g. Monday morning, 十三 点 ， 二百五 ） . In recent years, however, a number of studies have shown that not everything in our ment

45、al life depends on language. 1.2.1.6 Communicating Function (交际功能 ) As we have seen in the previous section, language is a means of communicating ideas and facts. In human society, people need to understand and be understood, to have their feelings and ideas recognized and acknowledged. We use langu

46、age to express ourselves to others. We also need language in order to understand what others are communicating to us. We use language for requesting, ordering, promising, asking for permission, and so on (e.g. All the Dialogue 2. parts in A New English Coursefunctional English). All human achievemen

47、ts are closely related to successful acts of communication. Language is the most developed and most subtle way to perform communication acts, and it is the natural inheritance of humans. 1.2.1.7. Pleasure Function (愉悦功能 ) Language allows us to derive pleasure from it. A large part of the pleasure we

48、 derive from language comes from the successful exploitation of linguistic novelty at different levels of the language. Advertisers (cross-talking) exploit this capacity just as much as poets and novelists. At the simplest level there is the enjoyment of sound itself and the melody of certain combin

49、ation of sounds (e.g. No Sun, no fun! 沟通从 “ 心 ” 开始； “ 胃 ！ 你好吗 ？ ” ；斯达 舒 四大叔 ” ). Most poetry exploit this function (onomatopoeia, alliteration头韵 , and assonance谐音 ). Examples Onomatopoeia: The stream is murmuring through the woods. Jane started giggling. The door crashed open. Heavy rain drops began

50、 pitter-pattering on the tent. I eat what I can, I can what I cant. Alliteration: Promise, Problem, and Provision. Presentation, Practice and Production. World-wide web. Assonance: fair and square; near and dear; The rain in Spain stays mainly in plains. At the syntactical level, we can gain pleasur

51、e from rearrangement by inversion or ellipsis of normal phrases or clauses order and from the conversion of words from one class to another. These changes play against our normal expectation from language and create a sense of novelty. Examples Inversion: Up goes the prices of daily necessities, and

52、 down come the living conditions of people. Ellipsis: Got troubles? I came, I saw, I conqured. At the level of meaning, most creative uses of language provide considerable pleasure through the generation of puns （ 双关 ） , paradoxes（ 矛盾修辞法 ,反论 ） , ambiguities （ 含 糊 其 辞 ， 歧义 ） , and metaphors. With the

53、se the oddness is not necessarily syntactic but lies in the capacity of the language to generate a plurality（ 大量不同的事物 ） of possible meanings. Examples Pun: No sun, no fun! Try our sweet corn and youll smile from ear to ear. -Fourth floor! shouted a passenger in the lift. -Hear you are, son. -How dar

54、e you call me son ? -Sir, I called, or whatever. Ive brought you up, anyway. Paradox: More haste, less speed. Its a paradox that in such a rich country there can be so much poverty. 甜蜜的痛苦，痛苦的甜蜜； 最恨我最爱的人，最爱我最恨的人； 痛，并快乐着。 好得一塌糊涂！ Ambiguity: 头脑活络 ， 手脚灵活 ; 先开花 ， 后结果 。 买一送一 。 Metaphor: The sunshine of he

55、r smile wormed everybody present. Its been a hard few months, but were finally beginning to see the light at the end of the tunnel. 军民鱼水情； 儿童是祖国的花朵； 老师是辛勤的园丁； 老师是蜡烛 This is not an exhaustive list and we may well have thought of other functions. It is important to bear in mind that a specific use of

56、language may fulfill more than one function. The more functions something fulfills, the more complex it usually is. (Have a look at the exercises on P. 18.) Look at the following examples of metaphor. Every pawn (soldier) has its uses, but without the chess board, it can only be a pawn. I may not be

57、 a trump card, but Im definitely a good card. I am this bowl of tea (big-bowl tea). Which looks plain but has a long lasting taste. I am the pure bred (the hidden talent); are you the one to discover me? 1.2.2 Metafunctions of Language (语言的元功能 /纯理 功能 ) (P.1820) A metafunction is one which is capable

58、 of describing one or more other functions. People do different things with language. They intend to achieve different aims and different purposes by talking, writing, listening and reading. Language is a system of signs developed to express social meanings. Function can be regarded as the use of la

59、nguage and be interpreted as a fundamental property of language. According to Halliday, language has to have an ideational function, an interpersonal function, and a textual function. 1.2.2.1 Ideational Function (概念功能 ) We are using language as a symbolic code to represent the world around us. The i

60、deational function, then, is the content of language and allows us to conceptualize the world for our own benefit and that of others. Through this function, the language encodes the cultural experience and the speaker encodes his or her own individual experience of the things of the world and his or

61、 her own consciousness. The ideational function is divided into experiential function and logical function. In a sense we bring the world into being linguistically. 1.2.2.2 Interpersonal Function (人际功能 ) According to Halliday, the interpersonal component represents the speakers meaning potential as

62、an intruder. It is through language that the speaker intrudes himself or herself into the context of situation. He or she expresses his or her own attitudes and judgments and seeks to influence the attitudes and behavior of others. The interpersonal function expresses the role relationships associat

63、ed with the situation. We gain much of our sense of identity, of who and what we are, from our relationships both with animate and inanimate things, and language is an essential part of that personalizing process. 1.2.2.3 Textual Function (语篇功能 ) Language has the function which enables the other two

64、 functions to operate, namely, the function which represents the speakers text- forming potential. This function relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings. Halliday calls it the textual function. We can see it as using language to bring texts into being. This functi

65、on expresses the relation of language to the verbal and nonverbal situational environment. These terms are interpreted as functional components of the semantics system. They are present in every use of language in every social context. A text is a product of all three. The three metafunctions of lan

66、guage are closely related to context and realized in the lexico-grammar of language. They are interwoven in discourse. According to Halliday, every sentence in a context is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously. This is the essential nature of a functional theory. (A quick look at the 2 questions on P. 20.) Assignment : Collect and write down as many as possible the following: 1. The 3 kinds of signs: icon, index, symbol. 2. The pleasure function of language at the three lev