戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记

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1、Chapter 1IntroductionWhat is linguistics?什么是语言学A The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is _ .generally _ defined , as. . the. . scientific . study . of. language (对语言进行的科学研究)Process of linguistic study: Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; Hypotheses are formulated; H

2、ypotheses are tested by further observations; A linguistic theory is constructed.B The scope of linguistics General linguistics 普通语言学:the study of language as a whole 从整体研究 1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic mediumof language) (How spee

3、ch sounds are produced and classified)2.Phonology|:is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in alanguage. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are com

4、bined to form words)4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the

5、study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathemati

6、cal linguistics; mathematical linguistics;computational linguisticsC Some important distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs. Descriptive规定性与描写性 Synchronic vs. Diachronic共时性与历时性(现代英语多研究共时性)The description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time

7、. Speech and writing言语与文字Spoken language is primary, not the written Langue and parole语言和言语Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological) Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community （指一个话语 社团所有成员共有的语言系统）Parolel refers to the realization o

8、f langue in actual use （指语言在实际运用中的实现） Competence and performance语言能力与语言运用Proposed by the American linguist N, Chomsky （psychological）Competence: the ideal users kndgbM the rules of his language.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规 则方面的知识）Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication.（

9、这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现）What is language?什么是语言A The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.（ 语言是一个具有任意 性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。）a）System: combined together according to rules （根据规则组合在一起）b）Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and w

10、hat the symbol stands for （语言符号和 符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c）Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d）Human: language is human-specific （语言是人类所独有的）B Design features （unique properties）: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of co

11、mmunication （识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征）Arbitrariness （任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form （either sound or word） and its meaning. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽 然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a）echo of the sounds of object

12、s or activities: onomatopoeic words （拟声词）b）some compound words （某些复合词）Productivity （能产性，创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. （Creativity or open-endedness）Duaity （双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or lay

13、ers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word （double articulation）（语言是- -个系统， 包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着 意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性）Displacement （跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts remove

14、d from the immediate situations of the speaker （refer to past and future time and to other locations） Cultural transition （文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis （everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language）, the details of any language system are not genetically tr

15、ansmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.The above 5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language.Chapter 2Phonology 音位学A The definition of phonetics (语音学)Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds

16、languages.(是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音)Articulatory phonetics： the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.(发音语音学)Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.(听觉语音学) Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ea

17、r, of speech sounds.(声学语音 学)B Organs of speech (发音器官)Voiceless:清 曰 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Voiced (Voicing): 浊音 when the vocal cords 声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, cre

18、ating a vibration effect.All the English vowels 元音 are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔The oral cavity 口腔The nasal cavity 鼻腔其他部位：Lips 唇 1, teeth 齿 2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈 3, hard palate 硬腭 4, soft palate (velum)软腭 5, uvula 小舌 6, tip of tongue 舌尖 7, blade

19、 of tongue 舌面 8, back of tongue 舌后 9, vocal cords 声带 10C Orthographic representation of speech sounds： Broad and narrow transcriptions(语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音)IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association 国际语 音协会/国际音标)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only (代表字母的符号)Narrow transc

20、riptionf the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符)E.g.:l分li:f-分 a clear l (no diacritic)l分bild-分 a dark l ()l分help-分 a dental l()p分pit-分 an aspirated ph(h 表示送气p分spit-分 an unaspirated p (no diacritic)n分国 btn分 a syllabic nasal n(昼)D Classification of English consonants (

21、英语辅音的分类)In terms of manner of articulation 根据发音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created) Stops 闭塞音：the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptlyp/b, t/d, k/g Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the monthf/v, s/z, J / 3 ,

22、 0/S, h (approximant) Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives t J /d 3 Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouthla lateral sound; r retroflex Glides 滑音

23、:w, j (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + h - approximants Nasals 鼻音：the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through itm, n, n 、By place of articulation根据发音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created) bilabial 双唇音：upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruc

24、tions p/b, w分(velar) labiodentals 唇齿音：the lower lip and the upper teeth f/v dental 齿音：the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth 0/8 alveolar 齿龈音：the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge t/d, s/z, n, l, r palatal 腭音：tongue in the middle of the palate 0/8, t J /d 3 , j velars 软腭因：the b

25、ack of the tongue against the velum k, g, n glottal 喉音：the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx hE Classification of English vowels （英语元音的分类）m 次ST 央 次后 后fti i * y j .甘uj u次闭i * y 、 u半闭 e s ey o小3|半井E * ce 3*0 A * o次开05 He开s - CE 、a D当餐号成海史敏眼若豆游代菁期摩等昔 The highest position of the

26、 tongue: front, central, back; The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; The roundness （shape） of the month （the lips）:All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except 遍All the back vowels, except A: are rounded vowels The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowels

27、Larynx - （tense） or （lax）Monophthongs, diphthongsCardinal vowelsg The definition of phonology （音位学）Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, et

28、c.Phonologyl, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.G Phone, phoneme, and allophone （音素、音位、音位变体）Phone: a phone i

29、s a phonetic unit or segment （因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophone： the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the alloph

30、ones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变 体）H Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair （音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体） Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, theyre in phonemic contrast.Complementary distributi

31、onE.g. pin & bin - /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe 今 /p/ vs. /b/（要会判断！）Minimal pair:two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.:when

32、 two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment whichoccurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme （always in the same position）, then

33、 all of these words constitute a minimal sets.I Some rules in phonol sequential rules序列规则Phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring in onset:如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则：No1:/s/第一个音位一定是/s/voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/第二个音位一定是 /p/, /t/, /k/approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三个音位一定是 /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2:The a

34、ffricates t,d 3 and the sibilants s,z,0,8 are not to be followed by another sibilants. assimilation rules 同化规则Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation & elision effects 兀音省略Assimilation: two phonemes occur in

35、sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound .鼻音化现象 deletion rule/Elision 省略规则Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolationE.g. delete a g when

36、 it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略词末鼻辅音前的g音J Suprasegmental features （超音段特征） Stress重音Word stress & sentence stressThe stress of the English compounds always on the first element Tone声调Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch

37、variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.像音 素一样可以区别意义Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调Level, rise, fall-rise, fall 阴平阳平上声去声 Intonation 语调When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively k

38、nown as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones 四种语调The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone 降调 声调 将声调 升降调Chapter 3Morphology 形态学A The definition of morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies . the . internal. .

39、structure . of . words . . and . the . rules . by . which, words are formed.（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究）Morphemq:词素 the most basic element of meaning.（意义的最基本要素）（A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function 最小的意义单位或者语法功能）g Free morphemes & bound morphemes （自由词素和黏着词素）Free morphemes I： can stand by themsel

40、ves as single words3 Lexical morphemes n.a.v & functional morphemes conj.prep.art.pron.Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form3 Derivational morphemes 派生词素 3affix 词缀（suffix, infix, prefix） + root 后缀 中缀 前缀+词根3 Inflectional morphemes 曲折词素 3 8 typ

41、es of inflectional morphemes in EnglishNoun+ -s, -s possessive 所有格;plural 复数Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en 3rd person present singular 第三人称单数;present participle 现在分词；past tense 过去 式,past participle 过去分词Adj + -er, -est comparative 比较级；superlative 最高级C Derivational vs. Inflectional派生（范畴/语类）和曲折（语法标志）Inflect

42、ional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word 只表示语法标志（时态、数、格）Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category 词的范畴；Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root （stem） + derivational + inflectional 词根/词干+派生+曲折D Morphological Rules形态学规则（词的构成方式- 词素是怎样组合成为词）N. +ly3 a.; A. +ly3 adv

43、.; guard overgeneralizationE Morphs and allomorphs 语素和语素变体Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemesAllomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.e.g.mapmaps sdogdogs zwatchwatches izmousemice aioxoxen ntoothtee

44、thsheepsheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.F Word-formation process （构词法） Coinage the invention of totally new terms （创造全新的词） Borrowing the taking over of words form other languages Compounding a joining of two separate words to produce a single form （组成复合词） Bl

45、ending taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word Clipping a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form Back formation a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word Conversion category change, functional shift A

46、cronyms new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words Derivation the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words （添加词缀） Abbreviation a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form （缩短原词）Chapter 4Syntax 句法学A Th? defini

47、tion of syntaxSyntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and rules that govern the formation of sentences （句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分 支）C Types of sentencesSimple sentence 简单句：consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and s

48、tands alone as its own sentence.Coordinate （Compound） sentence 并歹列（复合）句:contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”， “by”， “or”Complex sentence 复杂句：contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other Embedded clause 子句 D-struc

49、ture and S-structure深层结构和表层结构Deep structure: the structure that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It is abstract, which gives the , meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable.Surface structure: linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surface

50、 structure is relatively concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in communication.Two levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:One that exists before movement takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phra

51、se structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTransformational-generative line of analysisE Syntactic RelationsSequential(syntagmatic) relations 组合关系The linear ordering of th

52、e words and the phrases within a sentenceSubstitutional(paradigmatic) relations (聚合关系)If the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outside the sentence and the resulting sentence is still grammatical, then we say the replacing forms and replaced forms have paradigmatic

53、relations.F Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis )IC Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are.The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with this seg

54、mentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemesLabeled IC analysissyntactic categories criteria in judging syntactic categories:1) morphological features(inflectional and derivational affixes they take) (number,case gender etc.)2) syntactic contexts in which the linguistic form

55、s can occurCategorythedeterminer (Det.)boynoun (n.)oftenqualifierplaysverb (v.)aDet.verydegree word (Deg)smallmodifierballn.must, should. auxiliary (Aux.)and, but, or. conjunction (Con.)G The hierarchical structure of sentenceA sentence can be analyzed into constituents. Conversely, constituents at

56、different levels can combine to form increasingly larger units.sentencesare used to buildclausesare used to buildphrasesare used to buildwordsare used to buildmorphemesSentencesare analyzed intoclausesare analyzed intophrasesare analyzed intowordsare analyzed into morphemessentencesSo traditionally,

57、 sentences are assumed to be made of individual words in a linear directionChapter 5Semantics 语义学A The definition of semanticsSemantics:. the .stu.dy.of meaning from the linguistic point of view (对意义的研究)B Some views concerning the study of meaning 关于意义研究的一些观点 the naming theory 命名论 the conceptualist

58、view 概念论Thought/reference 今 concept 思想/指称Symbol/Form (words) 符号/形式 Referent 3(real object)所指 contextualism: John Firth 语境论 behaviorism - Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist viewS: stimulusr: responseJillJackSrsR（the small letters r, s 分 speech）（the capitalized letter R, S 分 practical events）C Se

59、nse and reference （意义和指称）Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.（主要涉 及语言形式的固有意义，是抽象，不与语境相关的）Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience （指语言形式在现实物质世界中的 事物，是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系）Moving starI once was bitten by a dog.Morning star Mind you. There is a dog over there.D Major sense