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1、1、概念界分1)公共行政，公共管理，政策公共行政：政治家、政策、官僚制公共管理：管理者、交易、公司手段政策：合法性、主权、权威（权利）2) 管理的概念A.无压力工作的艺术B.管理是对组织成员的努力和其他的组织资源的使用进行计划、组织、领导和控制,以实现既定的组织目标的过程。计划意味着经理（管理者）预先先行考虑其行动。他们的行动往往是建立在某种方法、计划或条理性之上, 而不是建立在某种预感之上。组织意味着经理对组织的人力和物力资源进行协调工作。组织是指管理者要协调一个组织的人员和物质资源。一个组织的力量在于调动许多资源来实现目标的能力。（显然, 组织的工作越是统一和协调, 组织就越有效。达到这种

2、协调是经理工作的一部分。）控制意味着经理努力确保组织朝着它的目标前进。领导意味着经理指导和影响下级。2、管理模型（Management of model）外部环境（包括任务环境、社会环境、管理环境）内部环境（包括组织结构、企业文化、资源）A:战略规划 使命 目标 战略 政策B:战略实施 项目 预算 程序(议程) C:评价与控制 绩效评价 反馈3、管理者的角色（从明茨伯格的分级视角）Technical-rational perspective:技术理性的视角：管理和组织的描述注重于组织的理论（机械的）方面以及计划，组织，协调，决策和控制的正式管理职能 Behavioral perspective

3、:行为的视角：管理的描述基于行为学科学家对组织实际上是如何地表现以及经理们在他们的职责内做了些什么的观察（管理的描述基于行为科学家的观察，包括） Cognitive perspective: 认知的视角：组织和管理的描述强调知识技能（知识的作用），核心竞争力及认知过滤。Managerial roles: 管理角色：对经理人在组织中行为表现的期望（预期）Interpersonal roles: 人际关系角色：管理者的角色是在在组织中担任有名无实的领导者或者真正的领导者Informational roles: 信息角色：管理者的角色是在组织中充当组织的神经中枢，接受并传播重要信息Decisiona

4、l roles: 决策角色：管理者在于发起行动，处理内部矛盾（干扰），合理分配资源，协商冲突4、企业管理（工商管理）与公共行政的对比1、相似点（共性）：组织结构的设计；稀有资源的配置；人员管理。2、区别：（1）主要区别： （a）盈利（赚取利润）； （b）以公共利益的名义提供服务或调节（规制）个人或组织行为。（2）第二个区别（次要区别）：（a）模糊性：目标的模糊性。工商管理：利润底线是衡量（评估）一个组织工作如何的基本标准（办法）。个别经理的表现可直接通过他们对整个公司的贡献加以评估。公共行政：公共行政很难列举或测量。环境质量保护是没有财政底线的。（b）多元化的决策：即将要做的工作企业管理：简单

5、决策可能很快地由个人或一个小团体制定出来。公共行政：难需要许多团体或个人参与到决策的制定过程中。力图以多元化的利益影响政策是民主政府的本质。（c）可见性：已经完成的工作企业管理：不是所有的公众都会审查，除了股东。公共行政：其工作不断地受媒体与公众的仔细审查（监视）。“在政府中，你就像处在一个鱼缸里。你像人类一样地改变想法或犯错误，它就会马上成为每家报纸的头版。”5、政治与行政These definitions, it will be通过这些定义我们会发现两者都在强调这样的事实，即政治与政府政策的引导或影响有关（政治在于受到政府政策的引导或影响），行政与政策执行有关（行政在于对政策的执行）。这正

6、是想要在这里区分的两个职能，并且为此选中了“政治”与“行政”这两个词。There are, then, in all governmental因此，在所有的政府体制里，有两个基本的政府职能，即国家意志的表达职能和国家意志执行的职能。同时，在所有国家的独立机关里，每个独立机关都主要忙于行使这两个职能中的一种。这两种职能分别是，政治与行政。6、官僚制Bureaucracy1、There is the principle of fixed and official jurisdictional areas, which are generally ordered by rules，that is,

7、by laws or administrative regulations.（法制化）在其固定的和官方的权限范围方面具有理论原则，这种理论原则一般 是以法规形式来加以规定的，也就是说是由法律或行政法规来规定的。” 2、The principles of office hierarchy and of levels of graded authority mean a firmly ordered system of super- and subordination in which there is a supervision of the lower offices by the highe

8、r ones.(层级节制) 职位分层和权力分级的原则意味着 一种牢固而有秩序的上下级制度，就是上级有权监管下级。（在这种制度中存在着一种上级机关对下级机关的监督关系。）3、The management of the modern office is based upon written documents (the files), which are preserved in their original or draught form. 现代公共机关（办公室）管理是建立在纸质文档上的，就是以原始文件和草案的形式存档。4、Office management, at least all spec

9、ialized office management- and such management is distinctly modern-usually presupposes thorough and expert training.职务管理，至少是一切专门化的职务工作，这是现代职务管理的特点而且这种管理是非常现代化的，通常假设它已经通过全面熟练地培训。5、When the office is fully developed, official activity demands the full working capacity of the official, irrespective of

10、 the fact that his obligatory time in the bureau may be firmly delimited当公共机关得到了充分发展的时候，公务活动要求行政官员全身心地投入，而不计较被严格限定的工作时间这一事实。6. The management of the office follows general rules, which are more or less stable, more or less exhaustive, and which can be learned公共机关的管理都遵循一般规则，它或多或少比较稳定，比较详尽，这些规则是可以被学习的

11、。7、组织理论评论（古利克）Organizing the Executive系统组织最高管理者的工作The effect of the suggestion.上述建议的作用是要让行政职能系统化和制度化，使它更适合于复杂的情境。实际上，这并不是一种新的思想。例如，我们不会想到让最高管理者自己写函件，我们给配备一名私人秘书，这个秘书在他的办公室中帮助他完成部分工作。他并不隶属于其它部门，他是最高管理者本身工作的一种分工。正是按照这种方式，虽然程度有所不同，可以将最高管理者的工作的其它方面都组织起来。Before doing this, however, it is necessary to hav

12、e a clear picture of the job itself. This brings us directly to the question, “What is the work of the chief executive? What does he do?”The answer is POSDCORB. 但是，在这样做之前，我们有必要弄清这种工作本身的情况。这就向我们直接提出了一个问题：“什么是最高管理者的工作？他做些什么？”答案是POSDCORB。POSDCORB is, of course, a made-up word designed to call attention

13、 to the various functional elements of the work of a chief executive because “administration” and “management” have lost all specific content. POSDCORB is made up of the initials and stands for the following activities:当然POSDCORB是一种组合词，目的在于唤起人们对最高管理者的各种职能性的工作因素的注意，因为“行政”和“管理”已经失去了所有具体的内容。POSDCORB是由下

14、列活动的首字母组成的并象征着这些活动：Planning, that is working out in broad outline the things that need to be done and the methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose set for the enterprise;计划（Planning）：为了实现企业事业单位所设定的目标，制定出需要完成的事情的纲要及完成这些事情的方法。 Organizing, that is the establishment of the formal structure of au

15、thority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined and co-ordinate for the defined objective; 组织（Organizing）：为了实现明确规定的目标建立起正式的权力机构，通过这种结构安排，规定和协调各种逐级分工的工作。 Staffing, that is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and maintaining favorable conditions of work; 人事

16、(Staffing)：雇佣和训练工作人员以及保持有利的工作条件等整个人事工作方面职能。 Directing, that is the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the enterprise; 指挥(Directing)：指下列连续性的工作，作出决策并以各种特殊的和一般的命令和指示使之具体化，发挥企事业单位领导者的作用。Co-ordinating, that i

17、s the all important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work; 协调(Coordlinating)：使工作的各个部分相互联系起来的所有重要职责。 Reporting, that is keeping those to whom the executive is responsible informed as to what is going on, which thus includes keeping himself and his subordinates informed through records,

18、research and inspection;报告(Reporting)：使最高管理者应对之负责的那些人不断了解所正在进行的工作，也包括通过记录、调查和检查使最高管理者及其下属不断了解有关情况。Budgeting, with all that goes with budgeting in the form of fiscal planning, accounting and control.预算(Budgeting)：包括所有以财务计划、会计和控制形式出现的预算。 亨利.法约尔在工业管理和一般管理一书中对管理职能进行精心分析，对最高管理者工作的这种说明正是根据法约尔的分析修改而成的。我认为，

19、熟悉行政管理工作的人将会发现，这种分析是一种有效的和有益的模式，它将符合任何最高管理者的活动职责。如果承认这七种因素是最高管理者的主要职责，那么可以说，可以分别将它们系统地做进一步的分工。这种分工的需要完全取决于企事业单位的规模和复杂性。在最大的单位中，特别是在最高管理者实际上不能完成繁重工作的地方，可以设想组织一个或几个低一级的POSDCORB部分。8、人类动机理论(1)There are at least five sets of goals, which we may call basic needs. These are briefly physiological, safety, l

20、ove, esteem, and self-actualization. In addition, we are motivated by the desire to achieve or maintain the various conditions upon which these basic satisfactions rest and by certain more intellectual desires.人至少有五个层次的需要，我们把他叫做基本需要。它们是生理需要，安全需要，爱的需要，受尊重的需要和自我实现的需要。其次，我们受这些需要的激励去实现或者维持各种层次需要的条件。各层次的

21、需要条件是依靠（已获得的最基本需要的）满意度和追求更多精神上的需求而设定的。2) These basic goals are related to each other, being arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency. This means that the most prepotent goal will monopolize consciousness and will tend of itself to organize the recruitment of the various capacities of the organism. The

22、less prepotent needs are p. 395 minimized, even forgotten or denied. But when a need is fairly well satisfied, the next prepotent (higher) need emerges, in turn to dominate the conscious life and to serve as the center of organization of behavior, since gratified needs are not active motivators.这些基本

23、需要互相联系，并且按照优先程度排列，这也就意味着最优先的那个层次会主导人的意识需求，并易于挖掘个体的各种能力（去满足这个需求）。最低层次的需求是被最小化的，甚至被遗忘或否定的。但是当一种需求得到很好的满足后，那么接下来较高一层的（具有优势的）需要才会出现，去支配有意识的生命和充当人行为控制的中心，而已经满足的需要不再是重要的激励因素。(3)Thus man is a perpetually wanting animal. Ordinarily the satisfaction of these wants is not altogether mutually exclusive, but on

24、ly tends to be. The average member of our society is most often partially satisfied and partially unsatisfied in all of his wants. The hierarchy principle is usually empirically observed in terms of increasing percentages of non-satisfaction as we go up the hierarchy. Reversals of the average order

25、of the hierarchy are sometimes observed. Also it has been observed that an individual may permanently lose the higher wants in the hierarchy under special conditions. There are not only ordinarily multiple motivations for usual behavior, but in addition many determinants other than motives.人是一个永远充满需

26、求的动物。通常这些需要的满足并不是完全相互排斥的，仅仅只是有这样的趋势。社会普通人员在多数情况下，自己所有的需要都是部分被满足，部分不被满足。凭经验观察层次理论，随着层次等级的升高，不满意的百分比就逐渐上升。有时候我们也看到一般层级顺序倒置的现象。还有要注意的是个体通常在特殊条件下会放弃较高层次需要的追求。不仅有平常多样化的动机去刺激行为，还有比动机更重要的决定因素。9、帕金森定律The validity of this recently discovered law must rest mainly on statistical proofs, which will follow. Of m

27、ore interest to the general reader is the explanation of the factors that underlie the general tendency to which this law gives definition. Omitting technicalities (which are numerous) we may distinguish, at the outset, two motive forces. They can be represented for the present purpose by two almost

28、 axiomatic statements, thus:这个新定律是否管用必须要拿统计数据说话，相关数据将会随后附上。而普通读者对（该定律诠释的）这种趋势背后的各种因素会更感兴趣。我们把相关术语（有很多）先放一放，先来区分两个（人的）原始动机。如下：（1）Factor I.an official wants to multiply subordinates, not rivals; and 因素I.一个官员要的是更多的下属，而不是更多的对手（2）Factor II.Officials make work for each other. 因素II.官员之间总喜欢给对方添活儿。We must no

29、w examine these motive forces in turn.这两条因素，我们现在一条一条来看。To comprehend Factor I, we must picture a civil servant called A who finds himself overworked. Whether this overwork is real or imaginary is immaterial; but we should observe, in passing, that As sensation (or illusion) might easily result from

30、his own decreasing energya normal symptom of middle-age. For this real or imagined overwork there are, broadly speaking, three possible remedies为了理解第一条因素，我们首先假定一个公务员A，此人感觉自己工作量超负荷。至于他是真的超负荷还只是幻觉，和本文无关；但是顺便提一句，我们应当看到A的感觉（或者幻觉）很可能是由于自身渐衰的精力所致，这也是人到中年常见的现象。对于这种亦真亦幻的超荷感，大体来说，有三种可能的解决办法：(1) He may resign

31、.辞职(2) He may ask to halve the work with a colleague called B.分一半工作（量）给同事B(3) He may demand the assistance of two subordinates, to be called C and D.增加两名副手C和D There is probably no instance in civil service history of A choosing any but the third alternative. By resignation he would lose his pension

32、rights. By having B appointed, on his own level in the hierarchy, he would merely bring in a rival for promotion to Ws vacancy when W (at long last) retires. So A would rather have C and D, junior men, below him. They will add to his consequence; and, by dividing the work into two categories, as bet

33、ween C and D, he will have the merit of being the only man who comprehends them both.公务员历史上大概不会有这样的A，专选1或2而不选3。因为，如果辞职，养老金就没了。如果找个B分担工作，只会增加一位（和A平级）对手，和自己争夺W（最后终于）退休后的缺位。所以A宁愿选择两个位置低于自己的下属C和D。C和D的到来会增加他位置的分量；并且，将工作分成两块儿分交C和D，他就成了唯一一个把握全局（C和D）的人。 It is essential to realize, at this point, that C and

34、D are, as it were, inseparable. To appoint C alone would have been impossible. Why? Because C, if by himself, would divide the work with A and so assume almost the equal status which has been refused in the first instance to B; a status the more emphasized if C is As only possible successor. Subordi

35、nates must thus number two or more, each being kept in order by fear of the others promotion. When C complains in turn of being overworked (as he certainly will) A will, with the concurrence of C, advise the appointment of two assistants to help C. But he can then avert internal friction only by adv

36、ising the appointment of two more assistants to help D, whose position is much the same. With this recruitment of E, F, G and H, the promotion of A is now practically certain.我们有必要意识到到目前（描述的）这个阶段，C和D是不可分割的，只找一个C作副手是绝对行不通的。为什么？因为假如只有一个副手C，C就会和A分担工作量，这样C就会拥有和第二个办法中的B差不多的地位了（而A是不会选择这个办法的）；如果C是A唯一的继任人，C

37、的地位还会提升。所以，A就会安排两个或者更多的副手；这么安排，每个下属还会表现得规规矩矩，以防其他人得到提升。当C也抱怨（简直是一定的）工作量超负荷时，A会在征得C的同意后，要求给C安排两个副手协助他。但是还得再给（和C地位相当的）D安排两个副手，否则会产生内部摩擦。E，F，G，H的到来使A的升迁几乎变得板上钉钉。 Seven officials are now doing what one did before. This is where Factor II comes into operation. For these seven make so much work for each o

38、ther that all are fully occupied and A is actually working harder than ever. An incoming document may well come before each of them in turn. Official E decides that it falls within the province of F, who places a draft reply before C, who amends it drastically before consulting D, who asks G to deal

39、 with it. But G goes on leave at this point, handing the file over to H, who drafts a minute, which is signed by D and returned to C, who revises his draft accordingly and lays the new version before A.以前一个人做的事，现在要由7个人来做。第二个因素由此起了作用。由于七个人相互之间制造任务，结果是每个人都很忙，而且A要比以前更忙了。一份新到的文件可能要依次在每个人那儿都走一遍。E认为这份文件应属

40、F的管辖范围，于是F草拟了文件回复，然后交到C那儿，C将草拟稿大幅修改之后转给D来征求意见，D把这个任务派给G，但是G请了假要离开，于是交给H，H做了备忘录后由D签字，然后又转给C，C按照备忘录做了相应的修改后将新版本递交到A那里。 What does A do? He would have every excuse for signing the thing unread, for he has many other matters on his mind. Knowing now that he is to succeed W next year, he has to decide whe

41、ther C or D should succeed to his own office. He had to agree to G going on leave, although not yet strictly entitled to it. He is worried whether H should not have gone instead, for reasons of health. He has looked pale recentlypartly but not solely because of his domestic troubles. Then there is t

42、he business of Fs special increment of salary for the period of the conference, and Es application for transfer to the Ministry of Pensions. A has heard that D is in love with a married typist and that G and F are no longer on speaking termsno one seems to know why. So A might be tempted to sign Cs

43、draft and have done with it. A会做什么？他会有充足的借口不读文件而直接签字，因为他还有许多其它事要想。他要决定由C还是D来接替自己，因为他明年将要接任W的位子。G向他来要假，他不得不准假，尽管严格来说G的请假理由并不充分。他同时纠缠于是否本该把这个放假的名额给H，因为H近来脸色很差部分是（但不是唯一）因为家庭矛盾。接着是关于F的特别加薪，因为他在会议期间有（额外的）付出。还有E要转岗到养老金部的申请。A还听说D正和一个已婚的打字员恋爱，还有G和F关系僵得已经不说话了，而且两人似乎都找不到症结所在。所以，A可能很想直接给C的草稿签字，就此一劳永逸。 But A is

44、 a conscientious man. Beset as he is with problems created by his colleagues for themselves and for himcreated by the mere fact of these officials existencehe is not the man to shirk his duty. He reads through the draft with care, deletes the fussy paragraphs added by C and H and restores the thing

45、back to the form preferred in the first instance by the able (if quarrelsome) F. He corrects the Englishnone of these young men can write grammaticallyand finally produces the same reply he would have written if officials C to H had never been born. Far more people have taken far longer to produce t

46、he same result. No one has been idle. All have done their best. And it is late in the evening before A finally quits his office and begins the return journey to Ealing. The last of the office lights are being turned off in the gathering dusk which marks the end of another days administrative toil. A

47、mong the last to leave, A reflects, with bowed shoulders and a wry smile, that late hours, like grey hairs, are among the penalties of success.但A对待工作的态度是很认真的。尽管同事给自己（也给其他同事）找了活没有这些职位，没有这些同事，就没有这些活儿他不是那种逃避任务的人。他细心通读了草稿，删去C和H添加的蹩脚的段落，恢复到更能干的（但是爱争吵）F提供的最初版本。他改了语病这些年轻人的语法都不严谨终稿好像完全是由A本人原创，C到H好像任何人都未参与其中

48、。同样的结果，人越多，完成的时间却越长，而且无人偷懒，每个人都尽了全力。当A终于离开办公室准备回在伊令的家时，天色已晚。苍茫的暮色中，办公楼最后一盏灯的灭掉意味着又一天行政工作的辛劳结束了。走在最后一批离开的人中间，A弯着背，面露苦涩，心里反思，加班和白发是事业有成带来的惩罚。10、领导权理论与后现代思潮Historical Trends in leadership Theory and ResearchAlong with the definition of leadership, early theorists sought to identify the various types of

49、 leaders that are to be found in a society.除了对领导力的定义，早期的理论学家也力图定义社会中不同类型的领导者。 Six types of leaders were observed: the authoritative seeks to dominate and impose his or her will upon the follower group; the democratic leader acts as an instrument of group purpose and seeks to further the welfare of t

50、he group; the persuasive leader is a crowd arouser and seeks to gain a following by appealing to the sentimens of the follower group; the representative acts primarily as a spokesman for the group as a whole; the executive is found primarily in formally structured organizations and is valued for his

51、 or her administrative abilities; and the intellectual leader is an eminent person who has a following of individuals and groups who find his or her ideas appealing. These different types of leaders and the basis for leadership positions are discussed more thoroughly in a few broad theoretical frame

52、works.观察到六种类型的领导者：权威型领导试图支配并将他的意志强加到他的跟随者中；民主型领导人充当着实现集体目标的工具（重要因素）并寻求促进组织福利。说服型领导是组织的活跃者，并希望跟随者来迎合其情感意识，获得他们的赞同；代表型领导总的来说主要充当整个团体的发言人；执行领导主要存在于正式结构的组织里，他的价值（重要性）体现在他的执行能力；智能型领导是一个在各方面都很卓越的人，他的追随者都是被的理念所吸引的。这些不同类型的领导和领导职位的基础在广泛的理论框架下被更加彻底地详述了。 Theories of Leadership Various attempts have been made t

53、o develop theories of leadership, explaining the emergence or maintenance of leadership or the relationship between leader behavior and follower response. A brief review of the theories is presented below.对于发展领导理论已经做出了各种尝试，如解释了领导力的出现、领导力的维持或是领导行为与追随者反应的关系。接下来就此理论做简要概述: In trait theories, the leader

54、is conceived as a great man whose superior endowments induce others to follow him/her. 在特质论中，领导被设想成一个伟大的人，其优异的天赋诱导别人跟随他/她。Environmental theories explain leadership on the basis of situations and crises that provide opportunities for capable people to propose solutions or exhibit heroic actions that

55、place them in positions of leadership.环境理论在危机情况的基础上解释了领导力的含义，危机情况为有能力的人提供了一个使它们置身于领导职位的机会，并提出他们的解决方法或展示他们英勇的行为。Personal-environmental theories maintain that characteristics of the leader, the followers and the situation interact to determine who will be a leader.个人环境主义理论主张领导的特性，追随者和形势的相互影响将决定谁将成为领导者

56、。Exchange theories suggest that group interaction represents an exchange process in which leadership is conferred upon the member whose efforts appear most likely to reward other members for their effort on behalf of the group. 交换理论建议，群体互动代表着交换的过程，在这个过程中， Humanistic theories are based on the hypothe

57、sis that groups will be m ore effective and members will be better satisfied when the leader allows followers freedom to satisfy their needs for achievement and self-actualization.人本主义理论是基于当领导允许其跟随者自由地满足他们对成就和自我实现的需要时，组织会更有效率，成员会更好地得到满足。Expectational theories maintain that leadership is most likely

58、to be achieved by the member who succeeds in initiating and reinforcing the expectation that he or she will maintain the role structure and goal direction of the group.It is proposed in contingency theories that a given pattern of leader behavior will lead to effective group performance in some circ

59、umstances and to ineffective performance in others. Path-goal theories suggest that certain patterns of leader behavior facilitate the clarification of group goals while other patterns of behavior stimulate effective instrumental responses in the follower group.权变理论提出，在某些情况下某一特定领导行为模式的将导致团队有效地业绩而无效的

60、表现在于他人。途径-目标理论表明，某些领导行为的模式有助于澄清群体目标而其他行为模式在追随者中有效刺激反应。Each of these theories is concerned with a small subset of the total leadership problem. A complete theory of leadership should explain: (1) the emergence of leadership in initially unstructured groups,(2) the maintenance of leadership once a rol

61、e structure has been developed and stabilized, (3) the relation of leader personality and behavior to follower and group response and (4) the conditions under which specific patterns of leader personality and behavior are effective. No such theory is presently available.（1）领导在最初的非结构化群体的出现，（2）领导的一次维修

62、结构的作用已得到发展和稳定的关系，（3）领导者的个性和行为的追随者和集团响应和（4）在何种条件下领导者的人格和行为的具体模式是有效的。这样的理论是目前是可用的。11重塑政府1， 起催化作用的政府：掌舵而非划桨2， 社会拥有的政府：授权而不是服务。3， 竞争性政府：把竞争机制注入到提供服务中去4， 有使命感的政府：改变照章办事的组织5， 讲究效果的政府：按效果而不是按投入拨款6， 受顾客驱使的政府：满足顾客的需要，而不是官僚政治的需要7， 由事业心的政府：有收益而不是浪费8， 有预见的政府：预防而不是治疗9， 分权的政府：从等级制到参与和协作10， 以市场为导向的政府：通过市场力量来变革。12

63、opening Administration to the Public政务公开Citizens of Bengbu City, Anhui Province, now have the opportunity to be a visitor at municipal government meetings, thanks to the governments recent efforts to open its administration-adopting the Measures for Inviting Citizens to Listen to the Administrative

64、Meeting, which came into effect on December 16, 2001.得益于2001年11月16日生效的政府最近实施的邀请市民旁听政府会议的行政事务公开改革措施,安徽省蚌埠市的市民现在有机会参加市政府会议。Ten citizens are invited to be present at each meeting on administrative affairs. The number of citizen listeners invited to very important meeting can vary. The listeners can be deputies to the citys peoples congress, members of the local committee of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, personages of democratic, members of the Association of Industry and Commerce and others. They must be at le