认知心理学课件：3注意

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1、12What is attention?nEveryone knows what attention is(William James,1890)nNobody knows what attention is34Controlled and Automatic ProcessesnAutomatic processing is parallel,involving highly familiar itemnControlled processing is serial,involving difficult tasks or unfamiliar itemsnAutomatic and con

2、trolled processing in selective and divided attention5Why We Need AttentionnThere are limits to our mental resources and to the amount of information on which we can focus our mental resourcesnAttention acts as a means of focusing limited mental resources on the information and cognitive processes t

3、hat are most salient at a given momentnAttention(heightened focus)increases the likelihood that we can respond speedily and accurately to interesting stimulinAttention also paves the way for other cognitive processes,such as perception,memory,and language understanding6What is ConsciousnessnConsciou

4、sness is more directly concerned with awareness-it includes both the feeling of awareness and the content of awareness,some of which may be under the focus of attentionnConsciousness means the awareness people have of the outside world and of their perception,images,and feelingsnAttention and consci

5、ousness are two partially overlapping setsnWhy visual attention and awareness are different.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,2003,7(1),12-187The Further Benefits of Conscious AttentionnMonitoring our interactions with the environment,maintaining our awareness of how well we are adapting to the situation

6、 we are innLinking our past(memories)and our present(sensations)to give us a sense of continuity of experience,which may even serve as the basis for personal identitynControlling and planning for our future actions,based on the information from monitoring and from the links between past memories and

7、 present sensations8Preconscious ProcessingnInformation that is available for cognitive processing but that currently lies outside of conscious awareness exists at the preconscious levelnPreconscious information includes stored memories and sensations that are not being used at a given time but that

8、 can be summoned when needed9n启动（Priming）nprocessing of certain stimuli is facilitated by prior presentation of the same or similar stimulinPriming occurs even when the priming stimulus is presented in a way that does not permit its entry into conscious awarenessntoo low an intensityntoo“noisy”a bac

9、kgroundntoo brief to be registered in consciousnessHow Can We Study Things that Currently Lies Outside Conscious Awareness?10Three Main Functions of Conscious AttentionnSignal detection:nto detect the appearance of a particular stimulus;including vigilance and searchnSelective attentionnto choose to

10、 attend to some stimuli and to ignore othersncocktail partynDivided attentionnto allocate available attentional resources to coordinate performance of more than one task at a time11三个阶段(Posner,1993)n20世纪50、60年代n人类作业n把人看成单一通道加工器n20世纪70、80年代n注意研究开始带有认知的色彩n内部表征、自动和控制过程、集中和分散注意的策略12三个阶段(Posner,1993)n20世

11、纪80年代中期n“认知神经科学”n心理学家开始重视生物学、神经心理学病人和计算1314过滤器理论(Filter Theory,Broadbent,1958)Broadbent,D.E.(1958).Perception and communication.New York:Oxford University Press.nDuring dichotic listeningnsensory information(e.g.,male vs.female voices,tones vs.words)may be noticed by the unattended earnbut informati

12、on requiring higher perceptual processes(German vs.English words)is notn早期选择模型15双耳分听Dichotic Listening16衰减模型(Attenuation Model,Treisman,1960)Treisman,A.M.(1960).Contextual cues in selective listening.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,12,242248.nSelective attention involves three StagesnWe

13、 preattentively analyze the physical properties of a stimulusnThis process is conducted in parallel on all incoming sensory stimulinFor stimuli that show the target properties,the signal is passed on to the next stagenFor stimuli that do not show these properties,only a weakened version of the stimu

14、lus is passed on17nWe analyze whether a given stimulus has a pattern,such as speech or musicnFor stimuli that show the target pattern,the signal is passed on to the next stagenFor stimuli that do not show the target pattern,only a weakened version is passed on18nWe focus attention on the stimuli tha

15、t make it to this stagenand we sequentially evaluate the incoming messages,assigning appropriate meanings to the selected stimulus messagesnAttenuate rather than filtern“quieter and quieter”nCocktail party effects19晚期选择模型(Late-Selection Model,Deutsch&Deutsch,1963)Deutsch,J.A.,&Deutsch,D.(1963).Atten

16、tion:Some theoretical considerations.Psychological Review,70,8090.nAttended and ignored input are processed equivalently by the perceptual system and reach a stage of semantic encoding and analysisnOnly important inputs lead to responses21非追随耳中的信息能否加工到语义水平Corteen&Wood,1972;Corteen&Dunn,1973 n皮肤电反应（g

17、alvanic skin response,GSR）n当被试预期将得到少量电击时，他们的皮肤电阻会发生改变n让被试首先形成一种条件反射，即在一套特定的词与期待电击之间建立联系。这些词与城市有关系n然后，让被试完成双耳分听任务。偶尔地，一个与电击相联系的词呈现给非注意通道n尽管被试宣称他们没有觉察到这些词，但是，被试显示出清楚的GSRn更有趣的是，对其它城市方面的词，这些被试也显示出GSR，而这些词在条件反射训练阶段并未出现过22Attention-Theories of Selective AttentionnThey assume that people have a fixed amoun

18、t of attention,which they can choose to allocate according to what the task requiresnPeople are much better at dividing attention when competing tasks are in different modalities than in the same modalitiesnAt least some attentional resources may be specific to the modality nThese theories have been

19、 criticized as overly broad and vague2324Stroop Effect(Stroop,1935)A visual Selective-Attention TaskStroop,J.R.(1935).Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions.Journal of Experimental Psychology,18,643662.红蓝Feature SearchFeature SearchConjunction SearchConjunction Search30视觉搜索范式与特征整合理论(Feat

20、ure Integration Theory,Treisman&Gelade 1980)Treisman,A.M.,&Gelade,G.(1980).A feature-integration theory of attention.Cognitive Psychology,12,97136.n有时，我们使用分散注意来对情景进行加工。这种情况下，情景的所有部分同时得到加工n在另外一些场合下，我们使用集中注意，对情景中的项目，一次只加工一个n分散注意和集中注意构成一个连续体，多数时候，注意介于分散注意和集中注意这样两个极端之间31n特征整合理论把加工分成两个阶段。第一个阶段是分散注意，人利用平行

21、加工，自动地对特征进行登记nFor every stimulus,their features are represented in a mental map immediately(with no added time required for additional cognitive processing),simultaneously(all features at once),and pre-attentively(without the need for using focused attentional resources)During visual search,we monit

22、or the relevant feature map for the presence of any activation anywhere in the visual fieldThis process can be done in parallel and therefore shows no display-size effect33Feature Encodingn目标（X）、无关项目（X、X）n无关项目多少不影响目标觉察速度nno display-size effect34n第二个阶段为集中注意，主要进行系列加工，即一次只识别一个客体。粗略地等同于控制加工n目标（X）、无关项目（O

23、、X）n目标与无关项目，在简单的特征层次上，并不能区别开。必须从客体或特征结合的水平上来区分35nDuring conjunction search,we must use our attentional resources as a sort of mental“”to conjoin two or more features into object representation at a particular location.nThis attentional process can only conjoin the features one object at a timenBecau

24、se this stage must be carried out sequentially,effects of display size appear36n概括地说，特征整合理论实质上认为，尽管特征登记不需要注意，但特征整合需要注意38394042错觉性结合(Illusory Conjunction)n特征的不恰当的结合。例如n向一个人呈现两个无意义的词，dax 和 kayn如果这个人处于分心状态，他可能报告说他看到了英文单词 day43n我们所注意到的我们所忽视的n有关信息无关信息或分心信息nAttentionInattentionn激活被动衰退 vs.主动抑制蓝蓝绿绿绿绿红红红红黄黄蓝

25、蓝绿绿黄黄黄黄蓝蓝红红46The Origin of Negative Priming(Dalrymple-Alford&Budayr,1966;Neill,1977)Dalrymple-Alford,E.C.&Budayr,B.(1966).Examination of some aspects of the Stroop color word test.Perceptual&Motor Skills,23,1211-1214.Neill,W.T.(1977).Inhibition and facilitation processes in selective attention.Journ

26、al of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception&Performance,3,444-450.Prime displayProbe displayExp.GREENBLUECtrl.YELLOW BLUETask:color naming48Spreading InhibitionnRepetition primingTipper,1985nSemantic priming?Tipper,1985feature vs.category levelnSemantic priming!Tipper&Driver,1988Tipper,S.P.,&Driv

27、er,J.(1988).Negative priming between pictures and words in a selective attention task:Evidence for semantic processing of ignored stimuli.Memory&Cognition,16,6470.49Are“semantic NP”effects are really semantic?nde Zubicaray,G.I.,McMahon,K.L.,Eastburn,M.M.,&Pringle,A.J.(2008).Negative priming in namin

28、g of categorically related objects:an fMRI study.Cortex,44,881-8895051n25 line drawings of common objects(Snodgrass&Vanderwart,1980)nfive categories(vehicles,fruit,musical instruments,clothing and animals)nStructural feature similarity(range 04 shared features)55Summarynthe so-called semantic NP eff

29、ect activates the left posterior-mid fusiform and insular-opercular corticesnMoreover,both naming latencies and left posterior-mid fusiform cortex responses were influenced by the structural similarity of prime-probe object pairings in the categorically related condition,increasing with the number o

30、f shared features56nNone of the cerebral regions activated in a previous fMRI study of the identity NP effect(de Zubicaray et al.,2006)showed similar activation during semantic NPnincluding the left anterolateral temporal cortex,a region considered critical for semantic processing57Bottom linenthe i

31、dentity and semantic NP effects differ with respect to their neural mechanisms,and the label semantic NP might be a misnomer58Negative Priming ParadigmnNegative Priming(Tipper,1985)nPrime display&probe displaynExp&CtrlnInstructionnMake response to the target and ignore the distractornThe negative pr

32、iming effectnIgnored repetition-Control59A Wide Variety of StimulinWordsnStroop color wordsnLocal-global lettersnLettersnPicturesnColornRandom shapes60A Wide Variety of TasksnPicture naming(Tipper,1985)nSpatial localization(Tipper,Brehaut,&Driver,1990;Tipper,Lortie,&Baylis,1992)nColor naming(Neill&W

33、estberry,1987)nLetter identification(Tipper,MacQueen,&Brehaut,1988)nLexical decisions(Yee,1991)61Reduced Negative Priming in Many PopulationsnChildrennChildren with attentional deficit disordernThe elderlynObsessionalsnSubjects who report high cognitive failurenSchizophrenicsnDepressed patientsnAlch

34、eimers patients62Negative priming reveals cognitive inhibition of a misleading strategynDaurignac,E.,Houd,O.,and Jouvent,R.(2006).Negative priming in a numerical Piaget-like task as evidenced by ERP.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,18,730-736 63The visuospatiallength-equals-number biasJean Piaget,1

35、896-1980 number/length interference for Item A andnumberlength covariation for Item B65Participantsnundergraduate students(mean age:23.02 3.8 years)66nRT(ms)nItem A(Piaget-like item)in test pairs:809nItem A in control pairs:829nItem B in test pairs:722nItem B in control pairs:701Negative-goingN200 p

36、eak maps(285 ms poststimulus)69nThe N200 occurs for attended stimuli and is considered to reflect stimulus discrimination and categorization processes required for response selection(Ritter,Simson,&Vaughan,1983)nThe N200 has been reported to be sensitive to the inhibitory processes and related to ex

37、ecutive control(Kiefer,Marzinzik,Weisbrod,Scherg,&Spitzer,1998;Kopp,Rist,&Mattler,1996)70nThe enhanced N200 amplitude reflects an increased energetic cost in information processing(Kok,1990)nwhen the length-equals-number strategy was activated after being actively inhibited in the preceding trialInh

38、ibition and AgingConnelly,S.L.,&Hasher,L.(1993).Aging and the inhibition of spatial location.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,19,12381250.72Tipper et al.,1989,1990Tipper,S.P.,Bourque,T.A.,Anderson,S.H.,&Brehaut,J.C.(1989).Mechanisms of attention:A developmental stu

39、dy.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,48,353378.Tipper,S.P.,&McLaren,J.(1990).Evidence for efficient visual selective attention in children.In J.T.Enns(Ed.),The development of attention:Research and theory.Amsterdam:Elsevier.n小学二年级儿童n分心信息特性抑制n分心信息位置抑制nLocation inhibitionnA first-in/last-out pr

40、ocess see Intons-Peterson et al.(1998)73Intons-Peterson et al.,1998JEP:LMC,1999,25:23-40n当在被试偏爱的时间进行测验时，年青被试表现出期望的负启动效应。而测验时间不适宜时，该效应减小并且变为正值。年老组表现出了同样的规律n测验时间适宜时，32名年青被试中30名出现了负启动，22名老年被试中19名表现出负启动n测验时间不适宜时，32名年青被试中12名表现出负启动，18名老年被试中10名表现出负启动74n当特别熟悉的信息出现在不适宜的时间时，对它的抑制可能特别困难n高峰期可能反映了额叶的参与。抑制加工可能以额叶

41、为中介，抑制随一天中不同时间的改变可能是因为额叶机能的生理节奏变化75NP:Episodic retrieval accountNeill,Valdes,Terry,and Gorfein(1992)nA target stimulus cues the retrieval of previous processing episodes involving the same stimulinincluding information about responses previously made to the stimulusnFor examplen“dog”-“do not respond

42、”nWhen the probe is presented,previous information that is similar to the probe target is retrieved to enable recognitionnIf this retrieved information is the previously ignored distractor,the“do not respond”tag that is retrieved impairs the response to the probe76Milliken,Joordens,Merikle,and Seiff

43、ert,199877nTipper,S.P.(2001).Does negative priming reflect inhibitory mechanisms?A review and integration of conflicting views.The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,54A(2),321-34380Further readingsnDagenbach,D.,&Carr,T.H.(1994).Inhibitory processes in attention,memory,and language.San Die

44、go:Academic Press,pp.22-29nMayr,S.,&Buchner,A.(2007).Negative priming as a memory phenomenon:A review of 20 years of negative priming research.Journal of Psychology,215(1),35-5181nThe invariant account(Houghton&Tipper,1994)nInhibition always operates in the same way(spreading),regardless of the spec

45、ific nature of the task碗碗营营(naming,semantic categorization)nThe flexible accountnThe inhibition mechanism of selective attention is not static and invariant,but flexible and able to adjust to meet different task demandsnOnly properties of the distractor that directly compete with the target in terms

46、 of the goals to be achieved are inhibitedDistractor Inhibition:Invariant or Flexible?82Tipper,S.P.,Weaver,B.,&Houghton,Tipper,S.P.,Weaver,B.,&Houghton,G.(1994).Behavioural goals determine inhibitory mechanisms of selective attention.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,47A,809-840.nConditio

47、nsnLocation,Identity,&ColornThe prime and probe have only one property in commonnLI,LC,&ICnThe prime and probe have two properties in commonnLICnThe prime and probe have three properties in common83Exp.1 LocalizationA B C DColor as the selection cueDesign8586Locate TargetThe whole is different from

48、the sum of its parts.8788Identify TargetHung&Tzeng,1989Very robust in experiments where subjects report location of the target89nAlso,significant interaction was observed while combining Exp 1 and 2,suggesting that inhibition is determined by behavioral goals(i.e.,locate vs.identify)90Exp 3:No Color

49、 Pre-cueingTo?the Selection Difficulty92Identify Target,No ColorPre-cueing93Inhibition is a Flexible Process.nAs selection becomes more difficult,inhibition is less precisely directed towards particular properties of the to-be-ignored objectnRather,inhibition is diffuse,affecting a variety of repres

50、entationsnInhibition of inhibition?94The Relation Between WM and Selective Attentionnde Fockert et al.,2001,Science,291,1803-1806Pop star or politician?96nRTs to the memory probe increased from 953 to 1394 ms between low&high memory loadnThe distractor interference effects were significantly greater

51、 during high(78 ms)than low(46 ms)WM load99100外源性和内源性定向（Exogenous and Endogenous Orienting）Valid and Invalid Cueing104nReflexesnDuring development,primitive reflexes disappear and behavior becomes guided more by internally generated goalsnSucking reflexes of infants disappear after the nursing years

52、,but can reappear in a patient with Alzheimers disease105nPresumably,these primitive reflexes remain hardwired in the nervous system but are inhibited after infancy-until a cortical insult causes them to be disinhibitednReflexes or automatic can be inhibited and nervous system routinely goes about i

53、ts business through an orchestration of reflexes and endogenous processes which can inhibit them106Posner&Cohen,1984Posner,M.I.and Y.Cohen(1984).Components of visual orienting.Attention and Performance X:Control of Language Processes.H.Bouma and D.Bonwhuis.Hillsdale,N.J.,Erlbaum:551-556.nOne of the

54、peripheral boxes was cued by brightening its contoursnThe central box was then cuednSubjects were instructed to fixate on the center of the display throughout the trialnTargetnSmall bright boxnPresented in the center of one of the peripheral boxesnTasknSimple detectionnInhibition of return,IOR(Posne

55、r,Rafal,Choate,&Vaughan,1985)Michael Posner107National Medal of Science laureatesn1964 Othmar H.Ammann,Theodosius Dobzhansky,Neal Elgar Millern1987 Anne Anastasi,George J.Stiglern1988 Milton Friedmann1990 Leonid Hurwicz,Patrick Suppesn1991 Robert W.Kates,n1994 Robert K.Merton108n1996 Paul A.Samuelso

56、nn1997 William K.Estesn1998 William Julius Wilsonn1999 Robert M.Solown2000 Gary S.Beckern2001 George F.Bassn2003 R.Duncan Lucen2004 Kenneth J.Arrown2005 Gordon H.Bowern2009 Mortimer MishkinMichael Posner110Manual Response Inhibition AccountnProbably true at least in some cases,if not in all cases111

57、How to Differentiate the Oculomotor Account from Manual Response Inhibition AccountnTarget-target IOR(e.g.,Maylor&Hockey,1985;Posner,Cohen,&Choate et al.,1984;Tassinari et al.,1989;Terry et al.,1994;Spence&Driver,Perception&Psychophysics,1998,60,125-139)nAuditory cue-target IOR arisesnAuditory targe

58、t-target IOR does not arisenVisual target-target IOR arisesnUnpredictable targets,no peripheral cuesnVisual-visual IOR:31 msnAuditory-auditory IOR:16 msnAuditory-visual IOR:17 msnVisual-auditory IOR:34 msSOA=900 or 1300 msCan IOR Be Inhibited?Berger,1992nProcedurenPredictive(80%)central arrow cuenOn

59、 30%of trails the central cue was a neutral diamond shapen500 ms after the central arrow cue,a peripheral box brightened at the locationnCued by the arrow1/3nIn the opposite field1/3not predictivenIn the center of the display1/3nSubjects were instructed to keep the eyes fixed,to allocate attention a

60、s indicated by the central arrow,and to“ignore”the peripheral box brighteningnCTOA=750 ms113114nIOR is not suppressed at the attended locationnSubjects were not able to voluntarily suppress IOR at a location at which they were expecting a targetnIOR is activated automatically and its effects occur i

61、ndependent of where attention is voluntarily allocated115nHowever,some reduction of IOR was found when the arrow cue was presented immediately before the target,suggesting that while IOR is a very autonomous reflex,it may be possible to inhibit it with voluntary effortnIOR occurred even when there w

62、as no alternative location at which a target could occur,and the subject had a strong incentive to maintain attention at that location116The Source of IORWhat Is Inhibited in IOR?What Process Is Influenced by IOR?The Consequence,rather than the mechanism!nInhibited perceptual processingnPurely perce

63、ptual measuresnIf IOR results primarily from response or motor processing,perceptual judgments with no motor component should show little or no effect of IORnInhibited motor responsenA combination of perceptual and motor factors117Maylor,E.A.,1985Maylor,E.A.(1985).Facilitatory and inhibitory compone

64、nts of orienting in visual space.In M.I.Posner&O.S.M.Marin(Eds.),Attention and performance XI(pp.189-204).Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum.nTemporal order judgments(TOJs)118Temporal Order Judgments(TOJs)nSimilar to the simple detection task,except that,following the cue,two successive targets(T1&T2)are displaye

65、d at separate locations on each trailnThe tasks of subjects is to determine which target appears first,and accuracy is typically emphasized over speednCue lead timenshort vs.longnTarget asynchrony119120What Is the Difference Between the TOJ Task and the Simple Detection TasknOn each trailnTwo succes

66、sive targets vs.only a single targetnThe primary measure of IORnAccuracy vs.latency121Maylor,E.A.,1985nSpeeded signal transmission at previously cued locations at short cue-target intervalsnNo evidence for delayed signal transmission at long cue-target intervalsnIOR reflects response,or motoric,inhibition,rather than a delay arising from perceptual impairment122The Taxonomy of IORnModalitynVisual IORnAuditory IORnCross-modal IORnAuditory cue,visual targetnVisual cue,auditory targetnVisual and ta