英文跨文化沟通复习资料

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1、1. The importance of learning about culture1. Understanding foreign cultures is not only important for companies that operate in more than one global area and market internationally. It is just important for organizations at home that employ workers from more than one culture. 2.Understanding cultur

2、e is also important for individuals who work in the global workplace. 3.the two important reasons for understanding culture are to learn how others make sense of （搞清.的意思） their environment, and to prevent mistakes and miscommunications.2. 对待差异的态度（ Responding to Different Cultures）：1.hostility （敌对） t

3、o difference 2.Curiosity about difference 3.Denying difference: Assumptions of superiority（ 优越）; Ethnocertrism（ 民族中心论）; Assumptions of universality 4.cooperating with difference3. Minimize and prevent mistakes across cultures :1.Knowledge about ones own culture, with this, knowledge about another cu

4、lture is easier to learn.2.motivation, the drive to know and to use the knowledge.3.implementing （贯彻）knowledge, and behaving in a way that makes sense in the other culture, the one in which you want to do business.4. culture is the coherent, , shared viewofa groupofpeopleabout lifes concerns, expres

5、sed in symbols and activities, that ranks what is important, furnishes （提供） attitudes about what things are appropriate, and dictates behavior.5. 文化三特征:1Coherent:each culture, past or present, is coherent and complete within itself 一an entire view of the universe2.Learned:culture is not something we

6、 born with3.The view of a group of people:is shared by a society.三功能：1.Ranks what is important: teaches values or priorities.2.Furnishes Attitudes:attitudes are based on beliefs as well as on values.3 Dictates how to behave:behavior comes directly from attitudes about how significant something is -

7、how it is valued.6.Onstage and backstage: Onstage culture is the behavior we display,it is easy to change.（interchangeable）Backstage culture is not so visible, it is difficult to change.（the essence of peoples culture）7. Transactionculture:a transaction culture exists when interactants respond to cu

8、ltural cues and modify their own behavior, creating-or co-creating一a new, temporary culture.（调整行为，适应对方 or 共同产生新行为）The amount of adjusted behavior depends on several factors : 1 their level of knowledge about the other culture2 their willingness to experiment with new behaviors and attitudes 3their p

9、revious experience with successful intercultural interactions.8. Culture shock: Culture shock is the sense of dislocation （转位） and the problems-psychological and even physical-that result from the stress of trying to make the hundreds of adjustments necessary for living in a foreign culture.7.Transa

10、ction culture 四个阶段:1. Experiencing a new culture is usually euphoria（欣快）2.Downturn as disillusionment （幻灭）and frustratio n（沮丧）arise3.adjustment4.integration （融合）Euphoria: everything about the exciting new adventure is wonderfulno longer two weeks.The second stage is a downturn as disillusionment and

11、 frustration arise. It is a feeling of not being in step with the members of the culture.Adjustment.-as the sojourner （寄居者）learns more about the backstage culture and how the other culture works, he or she is able to cooperate more effectively with members of the host culture. the fourth stage, inte

12、gration, occurs when a sojourner becomes fluent enough in the other culture to move easily within it and not be thrown by the different attitudes, beliefs, and values, and the behaviors they generate.Reverse culture shock: a similar adjustment period with its accompanying symptoms usually occurs whe

13、n a sojourner returnsa9.Self-knowledge and understanding ones own culture : Having a good understanding of ones own culture is the best foundation for developing the ability to understand the communication behavior of people from other cultures. To achieve it-Mental representation: use mental catego

14、ries that hold information items grouped together.10. Mental Representation三个心里表征：prejudice （racism, ageism） ;bias; discrimination11. Prejudice generalizations that are based on limited knowledge, and that express an evaluation-usually negative-are prejudices.Bias a bias for something is really noth

15、ing more than a preference. A bias against something is a negative attitude that ranks it lowDiscrimination when biases or prejudices are acted on, the actor is showing discrimination. Discrimination is the act of sifting （过滤） out and selecting according to bias toward something or someone, and trea

16、ting them differently.12. Are cultures merging into one global culture?（文化定义；onstage,backstage）13. Approaches to studying cultures:1.focus on a culture as a whole （emic studies 一个文化不同层面, etic studies 多种文化的共性）2 focus on individual（individuals may have any number of experiences, personal insights, per

17、sonal goals, interests and expectations that are part of their idetities.14. Emic studiesStudies that concentrate on one culture alone are called emic studies.Etic studiesStudies that look for factors that exist in more than one culture are called etic studies.Cultural generalizationsStudies about w

18、hole culture give us conclusions that are generalizations about the culture.15. Cultural dimensionsCharacteristics that could be the basis of comparisons from culture to culture is called cultural dimensions.16. Stereotypes: Stereotyping means using oversimplified generalizations to understand peopl

19、e lstereotypes are fixed, firm, inflexible mental categories2prototypes （原型） are the original concepts or models for something.3nor are all stereotypes bad, some are positive.17. Self-identity: identity is as sth formed in part by the self and in part by group membership.Self-concept can be formed i

20、n three general ways.Social Psychology-experience.Communication-core symbols, labels and norms. Critical-social contexts （history, economics, polities, public discourse）.18. Self-construal（自我建构） is how we see ourselves in relation to others, with regard to feelings, thoughts, and behavior. In genera

21、l, western culture have an independent self-construal, and eastern cultures have an interdependent （相互依赖的）self-construal.19. Individualism values individual achievements, failures, and rights over the collective.Collectivism values the group above the individual, and individuals have a responsibilit

22、y to the group-that supersedes （取代）_individual needs or rights.20. 文化维度1. 语境：a.高 High-context cultures rely on the context, either the actual physical environment of communication or an internalized （内在化的）social context, or both, to convey a large part or even all of a messages meaning. It is ellipt

23、ical 省略的，indirect, allusive （暗指的）.低:Low-context cultures entrust （委托）the meaning almost entire the words.it is explicit,direct, completely.2. 集体个人a.定义b集体-关系导向型，个人-结果导向型c. A characteristic of individualist culture is competitiveness; the corresponding value in collectivist cultures iscooperation.Coll

24、ectivism: relationships, old, permanent, public, high power distance （hierarchical）, high -context culture, hide emotion, cooperation, harmony, dependence.Individualism: results, youth, temporary, private, low power distance （horizontal）, low-context culture, express Emotion, competitiveness, indepe

25、ndence.3. 权力距离：Power distance is the degree to which less -powerful members of an organization tolerate unequal distribution of power, say, between managers and employees.cultures with a smaller power distance are more horizontal, less hierarchical, and less authoritarian than are cultures with a hi

26、gh power distance.Cultures with high power distance are inequality in power, less horizontal, more hierarchical, and more authoritarian.21. High-context cultures: value relationships, teamwork, and long-term group membership. It rely on subjective information that is internalized （elliptical, indire

27、ct, allusive）.Low-context cultures: value independent decisions, activity that achieves goals, and individual accountability （explicit, direct, completely）.22. High culture refers to those cultural activities that are often the domain of the elite or well-to-do :ballet, sumphony, opera, great litera

28、ture, and fine art .I nternational; timeless; transcendent（超然的）；Low culture refers to the activities of the nonelite: music videos, game shows, professional wrestling, stock car racing, graffiti art, tv talk shows, and so on.23. Where can information about cultures be found : 1. ask people who are m

29、embers of the culture you want to understand. 2. Another good source may be someone who has spent considerable time in that culture but is not a native member of it.3. You can inquire（询问）into a culture by reading fiction from that culture.4. find out what people of a culture say about themselves. 5.

30、Information about cultures also comes from studies by anthropologists who research cultures in the field, going to live among the members of the culture they want to understand.24. Does Knowing Come from Concepts or Experience:1.knowing by secondhand information from a reliable source.2.in English-s

31、peaking or European cultures, abstract提取）concepts philosophy arguments reaching back in history.3.knowing and being wise come with age 4.intuition（知觉）,meditation （冥想）25. Does Learning Come from Asking Questions or Mastering Received Wisdom:1.In the United States ,students who ask questions are rewar

32、ded.2. In many cultures in Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and Southern Europe, learning means receiving and taking in what is given by teachers.26. Does Knowledge Have Limits: the more you learn, the less you know. E.g. nonscientists who have faith in what science can achieve27. How Do People

33、 Reason:1.Western cultures primarily （ 首先） use a cause-and-effect pattern of thinking.（Linear Logic）; two opposite things cannot both be true. 2. Other cultures use other patterns. （Spiral Logic）a. In Asian: thinking is linkage; the opposites co-exist28. Is Doing Important or Is Being Important :1.D

34、oing: western cultures: activity-oriented, peace of life, crowded agendasC 日程）.2.Being: stillness, collectedness, serenityC平静），silence（members of doing cultures view silence as waste, members of cultures that value being also often value silence）.29. Are Tasks Done Sequentially or Simultaneously：1.

35、performing tasks one-by-one in a sequence 误解 disorganized 2. performing multiple tasks simultaneously 误解；inflexible30. Do Results or Relationships TakePriority1.Individulism:a.cause-and-effect,goals-oriented,to make progress （进步） . b. identify goals and work toward them c. Strategy to achievement. d

36、. measure how close you havecome 2.collectivism:a.relationship-oriented b.Value the relationship as a means to an end.31. Is Uncertainty（不确定性）Avoided or Tolerated1.uncertainty-averse:Doing： avoid uncertainty, strive to protect themselves from the unknown 2.uncertaimty-tolerant:Being, tolerant uncert

37、ainty; be more open to accepting the unexcepted.32. Is Luck an Essential Factor or an Irrelevance: 1. Luck is irrelevant, in cultures that think in cause_-and-effect patterns and that value results, planningnot luckis the key to success. 2. In some cultures, luck or fate or destiny plays a large par

38、t, peoples role in achieving success has less effect than forces outside themselves.33. Are Rules to Be Followed or Bent: 1. Followed: neat, predictable behavior, uncertain avoidance （逃避）.2. Bent: flexibility to meet human needs; uncertain （无常的） tolerance.34. Is Change Positive or Negative:1.The cul

39、ture of the United States thinks of change as desirable and positive. New means better.2.Traditionally, agrarian cultures typically view change is negative. It means disruption （破坏） to the established patterns of life.35. Is Death the End of Life or Part of Life: Some cultures view death as the end

40、of life, a quenching （熄灭）of the light. It is dreaded （令人畏惧的）.Some cultures view death as another phase in life, a necessary step in the pattern of life. It is accepted.简36. Relationship between Language and culture: 1. culture and language are intertwined（ 缠绕的） and shape each other. It is impossible

41、 to separate the two.2.All languages have social questions and information questions.3. Language reflects the environment in which we live; language reflects cultural values; Sometimes different cultures use identical words that have rather different meanings.37. 不重视语言的问题1.Acronyms（首字母缩略词）2.implicat

42、ion of the language barrier.（字同音不同，异国异 含义）38. Selection of the right language: 1. Linguistic Considerations 2. Business Considerations 3. Political Considerations 4. The Appropriate Level of Fluency39. Communication with nonnative speakers: Effective Face-to-Face Communication： a.enunciate b. speak

43、slowly c. Avoid Slang and Colloquialisms （白话）d. Be Careful about Jokes. e. Be Sincere g. Be Culturally Sensitive h. Keep a Sense of Humor40. Effective Written Communication a. Use Plenty of White Space b. Use Correct Titles and Spellings of Names c.Understand Patterns of Organization d. Use Headings

44、 e. Be Careful with Numbers f. Be Careful with Dates g. Avoid Abbreviations h. Follow the Conventions of Written Communication41. 技术对沟通的影响：l.telephone； 2.skype 3. Email,texting and twitters42. 非语言交流影响因素： 1. Cultural background 2.socialeconomic background 3. Education4. Gender 5. Age 6. Personal pref

45、erences and idiosyncrasies （特质）43. Paralanguage 1.vocal qualifiers: The term vocal qualifiers refers to volume （音量），pitch （音高），and the overall intonation （声调）or melody （旋律）of the spoken word.2. vocalization: All cultures use nonword noises such as ahem, um, er, sucking in ones breath, and clicking o

46、ne s tongue.44. Nonverbal business conventions：1.eye contact （a sign of honesty/privacy ） 2. Facial expression （不同文 化频率 frequency 强度 intensity 不同 a. smiling （indicate joy, embarrassment or avoid embarrassmentjb.showing anger（milder form-frowning; hide anger） 3.gesture（head/arm movements; posture） 4.

47、timing in spoken exchanges（an environment that emphasizes equality; seniority and hierarchy;the role of men.）5.touching（people from low-context cultures tend to be feel crowded by people from high-context cultures, and people from high-context cultures feel left out and rejected by people from low-c

48、ontext cultures. 6. The language of space （private/ office/ public space）7.Appearance （a.不同国家穿衣风格不同 b.in most cultures, dress also identifies a person as belonging to a specific group and having a certain status.）8.Silence:（高语境文化更倾向于使用沉默， 低语境：silence often is interpreted as the absence of communicat

49、ion）45. Signals of respect: it can be different from culture to culture, and it may take some time to learn what is excepted behavior. Positions of authority Dress as a symbol of authority46 权威的象征：l.tone and behavior2丄anguage（indicator）3.Family and societal structures（indicator） Assertiveness（ 魄 力 ）

50、 v.s Harmony.:1.standing up for one s own rights（individualism,low power distance）2.Preserving harmony（collectivism,high power distance）47 绩效的认可及奖励： 1.monetary recognition 2.nonmonetary rewards48 自我认同 I.Self-identi A Social Psychology Approach: （experiences） we can think about self-concept is that w

51、e build up our sense of self from childhood, based on experiences we have had that contribute to our sense of self. 2.Self-identi A Communication Approach （communication）： Identities （身份） are communicated in core symbols, labels, and norms.49.Self-identityA Critical Approach（social context）: The cri

52、tical approach to self-identity uses history, economics, politics, and public discourse.50 Age: Is Seniority Valued or Discounted : a. In cultures that value age, the older a businessperson is the more credibility he or she has. b. in youth -oriented cultures being young seems to mean having more ch

53、oices, more power, more energy, and more freedom.51 Gender: Are Women Equals or Subordinates: a.In traditional cultures, the two facts are related. Child-bearing and child-nurturing are the main roles of women. b. management rolea52 Social organization :1 Group Membership: Temporary or Permanent: a.

54、 Individuals in the United States are members of many groups simultaneously; group membership is impermanent b. In other cultures, the responsibilities of membership come before rights; group membership is permanent, belonging starts with the family.53 three functions of group communication:1.Give a

55、nd Save Face 2. Display Emotion3. about Shame or Guilt（a.In individualistic cultures, where individual responsibility, results, and privacy are valued, guilt is a potent way for a culture to enforce （实施） rules of behavior. b. In collectivist cultures where group membership, relationships, and public

56、 knowledge of ones life are important, shame enforces the rules of conduct.）54 form: Important or Untrustworthy （靠不住的）：Behaving according to form means behaving correctly.55 Personal Matters: Private or Public: a. In Europe,as in Britain, Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, a pers

57、ons work life is kept fairly separate from private life.b. cultures that emphasize relationships, view group member-ship as long term, and value harmony have a blurred （模糊不清的） distinction （区别） between what is private and what is public （or at least what is “group”）.56 Social Organizational Patterns:

58、 Horizontal or Hierarchical:1.monarchies（君主制）：at one extremeare rigid （严 格的） vertical levels in society,2.Democracies: movement between them is very limited; at the other extreme, society is horizontal and operates with few levels.57 Approach to Authority: Direct or Mediated：1. in many cultures, the

59、 approach to authority is indirect.2. In New Zealand, in which horizontality has priority, the approach to authority is direct.58 Communicating about problems： 1.in low-context cultures： direct 2.in high-context culture： indirect, put a high priority on keeping harmony, preventing anyone important f

60、rom losing face, and nurturing relationship.59 Saying no :1.it is done with delay and indirectness in low -context cultures, the rationale （基本原理） is to explain why first. 2.it is more difficult for high-context culture, which is often saying yes.60 Gift giving; 1. in many cultures, it is appropriate

61、 to take small gifts when one is invited to enjoy hospitality （好 客） . 2.the way people from different cultures express appreciation for hospitality varies. 3.the timing of greetings is also important61 Managing conflicts: conflict is a clash between people or between ideas that engages（吸引）_people in

62、 astruggle against each other. 1. In individualist culture （result-oriented） people are responsible for the consequence of their own individual activities.2. in collectivist culture（relationship-oriented）:they value on relationship, problems are not an individual responsibility.解决方式 peting2.collabor

63、ating （合作）promising4.avoiding5.accommodating （调节）62. Popular culture refers to those systems or artifacts that most people share and that most people know63 . its produced by culture industries.its differs from folk culture.its everywhere.its fills a social function.64 It differs from folk culture.P

64、opular culture: mass-producedand mass-marketed cultureFolk culture: more authentic folk culturea65 CollectivismThink about the familys welfare,reputation,and honor.Marriage and birth-giving, instead of personal affairs, are taken care by all the others in your group which basically is your family.66

65、 IndividualismTakes the marriage as ones own business.Put yourself in the first place thinking of your own happiness, interests67 The concept of face.Concern for face probably appears in many cultures, but is seen as more salient （显著的）for the Chinese than for people from other cultures. Face in Chinese culture refers to ones moral character, a persons reputation or prestige （威望）.It is the positive social value that a person claims （主张）for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular.68 Chinese culture has th