高级英语写作2-Argumentatio.ppt

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1、ARGUMENTATION Introduction of CONTENTS目录 1. Definition 2. Principles and Conventions 3. Argument structures 4. Strategy 6. An example 5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument What is argumentation ? Argumentation is analyzed, review of a problem or something, that a style of their own po

2、int of view, position, attitude, views and propositions. Critical review Editorials Resume Letters to the editors Examples of argumentation writing are: Job evaluation Job application letter Letter of recommendation 2. Principles and Conventions A good argumentation should abide by the following con

3、ventions: Follow the rules of reason Three kinds of evidence:objective data,social consensus,personal credibility and experience Evidence must be presented logically Three types of appeals:ethos( 喻德） ,logos （喻理） ,pathos （喻情） 1 4 A well-defined,controversial issue A clear position taken by the writer

4、 A convincing argument 2 3 A reasonable tone A good argumentation should include: 1. A well-defined,controversial issue: e.g. First children are smarter-But why? Marriage makes our children richer Heres why Eating popcorn in the cinema makes people immune to advertising Men and women cant be just fr

5、iends 2. A clear position taken by the writer e.g. Correct Can heterosexual men and women ever be “just friends”? a new study suggests that men, relative to women, have a particularly hard time being “just friends.” e.g. Error XXX is one of the most important things in peoples life. It has many adva

6、ntages.However,just as every coin has two sides,XXX also has some disadvantages. 3. A convincing argument facts,statistics,testimony,examples 4. A reasonable tone I belive I think CONTENTS目录 1. Definition 2. Principles and Conventions 3. Argument structures 4. Strategy 6. An example 5. Common logica

7、l fallacies and weakness in argument Argument structures 1. Simple argument Claim Support inf eren ce A simple argument only contains a claim,a support and a inference,as shown in the following: SUPER NANNIES To keep up with the times,Norland College in England,trainning nannies,has added two new cl

8、asses to its curriculum:martial arts and stunt driving(特技驾驶 ).Why? Because the children of the rich and famous are often targeted by the paparazzi(狗 仔队 ) ,and could potentially become victims of kidnapping （绑架） attempts. So,Noland thinks its naannies need to know how to handle these high-risk situat

9、ions. Claim Support/Claim Support inference inference A chain argument contains more than one layers of argument.The support of the first layer becomes the claim of the second layer,which needs further support,as shown in the following: relay race 接力比赛 2. Chain argument 小伙伴，此处有视频哦 ！ 3. Compound argu

10、ment A compound argument contains more than one support for the same claim,as shown in the following: Claim Suppor t inf eren ce Suppor t Suppor t CELEBRITIES WHO FELL FROM GRACE 那些自毁前途的明星 “ The higher you go,the harder you fall” is a common English expression.It means the more successful you become

11、,the more you have to lose.And its an experience shared by many celebrities who have ruined their careers by doing something stupid or illegal.Here are some famous people who have fallen from grace. Tiger Woods In 2009,Tiger Woods was the best golfer in the world But then he had an affair.In Decembe

12、r2009,the tabloids（小报） revealed that Woods had cheated on his wife with more than 12 women Lindsay Lohan Between 2003 and 2005,Lindsay Lohan starred in a string of highly successful films and became known as the teen move queen Unfortunately,in 2006,Lindsay started drinking and doing drugs;and since

13、 2007,shes been arrested over twenty times. Phil Spector is currently in prison for murder. Lance Armstrong use performance enhancing drugs. Should Smoking Be Banned? It has become fashionable in the world today to condemn smoking. However, although I feel that smoking can be harmful, I do not think

14、 it should be banned. First, smoking undoubtedly helps many people to relax. For some, it . A further point is that governments throughout the world make huge profits from levying taxes on cigarettes. This provides funds . I would also argue that people should have the right to choose whether they s

15、moke or not. People should not smoke . 兄弟，来 一根呀！ Support Support Support Claim 4. Convergent argument Clai m Support inf eren ce Support A convergent argument requires two supports to work together for a claim. In other words,only one support cannot stand well without the other,as shown in the follo

16、wing. rather than it tells you a structure,it teaches you a way to think： well-knit（严谨） 1、 its so cold outside,lets have hot pot for dinner ok? 3、 because it s better to eat spicy food in cold weather！ 4、 ok,lets go! 最后，他们 在一起了！ 2、 why do we have to eat hot pot ? The weather is so cold today. we sho

17、uld eat hot pot for dinner today. Its best to eat spicy food in cold weather. 热火锅结构 5. Complex argument Claim Support Support/Claim Support Support Support Support A complex argument combines all the above structures and usually appears to be the final outline of an argumentation,an shown in the fol

18、lowing: Sherlock ： Watson is his flatmate Watson need to get a flatshare. Just after lunch ,Mike and Watson come. Watson got shot Watson can t afford London on an Army pension. Sherlock told Mike that he is a difficult man to find a flatmate. 小伙伴，此处有视频哦 ！ Argument structures CONTENTS目录 1. Definition

19、 2. Principles and Conventions 3. Argument structures 4. Strategy 6. An example 5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument Strategies 1. Reasoning 2. Example 3. Raising figures 4. Contrast and comparison 5. Making concessions 6. Quotation 7. Analogy . 1. Reasoning Reasoning is to organise

20、the causes and effects in a logical way. inductive reasoning（归纳法） reasoning from detailed facts to general princiles(or from effect to cause) deductive reasoning(演绎法 ) reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect) 常用关联词 therefore, as a result, consequently, fortunately, surp

21、risingly. 常用句式 As ， since， because Due to， owing to， Because of ， thanks to The reason why is that be related to be associated with contribute to “ Facts speak louder than words.” - Abraham Lincoln Sometimes a specific example is more useful in supporting your claim. 2. Example 常用关联词 as an illustrat

22、ion, for example, in particular, specifically, to illustrate, to demonstrate. 常用句式 A good case in point is that A typical example can be found in Claim: opinions on the safety of genetically modified food are drasticly varied. 支持： 便宜、安全又环保， 为什么不选择它呢？ 反对： 又没有足够的实验证 明转基因食品绝对安全，所 以应该谨慎对待！ “ Let the dat

23、a speak for themselves.” Statistic data from an authentic research paper could be a very powerful support of your claim. 3. Raising figures Ways to present figures: table (表格 ) line graph（折线图） bar chart（柱状图） pie chart（饼状图） process diagram（流程图） Claim: is very papular,expecially among young women. 4.

24、Contrast and comparison claim: It is more expensive to live in China than in America. e.g. Assume that you earn 8000/month in China and your. American counterpart Peter earns 8000$/month in America. for you : 60 years for Peter:6 years for you : 10 years for Peter:0.5 years 20 4 $ 常用关联词 Likewise, si

25、milarly In contrast, on the contrary, while, whereas. 5. Making concessions It is a indirect way to express your disagreement with an opinion. It helps to make your refutation much softer so that you dont offend others and thus makes your opinion more acceptable. 常见表达 Although though As is granted I

26、n spite of the fact that Opponents would argue that 小伙伴，此处有视频哦 ！ 6. Quotation A quotation is a phrase from a book,research, play,etc,that sb repeats because it is interesting or useful.Using quotation in your argumentation makes it more objective and unbiased,thus your claim may seem more credible a

27、nd authoritive. In the middle of difficulty lies opportunity. -Albert Einstein 常用句式 Just as sb puts it. According to a recent study. A recent opinion poll revealed that A cat is a good cat only if it can catch a mouse. -Xiaoping Deng A soldier who doesnt want to be a general is not a soldier. -Napol

28、on Bonaparte 7. Analogy Analogy is an inference that if things agree in some respects they probably agree in others. e.g. water is to fish what air is to humans. I love you,just like mice like rice. 常用句式 A is to B what C is to D. Just like. CONTENTS目录 1. Definition 2. Principles and Conventions 3. A

29、rgument structures 4. Strategy 6. An example 5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument 1. Absolute statements Although it is important to convince readers by making a strong impression, avoid making absolute claims that can be dismissed with a single exception. example We can t communicat

30、e with people from other country without learning English. 要不咱说中文？ 成啊。 小伙伴，此处有视频哦 ！ Money is everything. The heart made by money is empty. example 男人没一个好东西 No one can deny the fact that There is no doubt that Everyone/ everything/ nothing. 2. False dilemma Avoid overdramatizing your case by offering

31、 readers only two alternatives. Most readers will immediately recognize the weakness of such an unrealistic argument. example It s necessary to or we will America-love it or leave it! love hate 老妈 女盆友 3. Basing arguments on personalities Don t presume that readers will be impressed by citing endorse

32、ments by famous people. The fact that a celebrity or single experts supports your argument is not convincing evidence. Don t attack the personality of opposing authorities or reject an idea because someone controversial supports it. National health care, for example, were tenets of both Nazism and C

33、ommunism. example Kathie Lee Gifford, a popular TV celebrity, says that cruises are wonderful, so they must be. 我是权威我怕谁！ National health care, for example, were tenets of both Nazism and Communism. 4. False analogy Comparisons form weak arguments. Although they may be useful to illustrate an idea, t

34、hey rarely provide convincing evidence. The fact that an educational policy works in Japan does not mean it will work in the United States. example The fact that a policy works in the past doesn t means it still works in today. Birth control policy is essential to our social and economic system. 5.

35、Hasty generalizations Make sure that any conclusions are based on sufficient evidence and not coincidence or simple circumstance. example French people are more romantic Asian students are better in math. 6. Begging the questions Begging the Question is a fallacy in which the premises include the cl

36、aim that the conclusion is true or assume that the conclusion is true. Bill: God must exist. Jill: How do you know? Bill: Because the Bible says so. Jill: Why should I believe the Bible? Bill: Because the Bible was written by God. example The weakest countries have no real international status. 这话谁说

37、的？ Absolute statements Basing arguments on personalities Hasty generalizations False dilemma False analogy Begging the questions Logical fallacies I strongly recommend that people should I agree to the point to some extent. I would like to believe thatshould be For my part/As to me/As far as I am co

38、ncerned, Id like to agree to the former point of view./My favor g oes to the first point of view. There are probably some truths in both arguments/s tatements. It is true thatBut Personally, I prefer/Im in favor of/on the side of How to express your opinion： CONTENTS目录 1. Definition 2. Principles an

39、d Conventions 3. Argument structures 4. Strategy 6. An example 5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument To begin with, Disneyland to be built in Shanghai will boost the employment in face of tough job market globally. Obviously, another benefit will be spiritual enjoyment and cultural am

40、usement. Moreover, this will be another golden opportunity to elevate Shanghais international metropolis image, aside from the 2010 World Expo. China has become the third largest entity. Embracing multi-cultures and integration into globalization are the inexorable trend. I believe Disneyland to be built in Shanghai will be a correct choice, not only for Shanghai, but also for China. Should We Build Disneyland in Shanghai? Argumentation 3. Argument structures 1. Definition 5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument 4. Strategy 2. Principles and Conventions 6. An example THANK YOU