语言学教程-第三版-第八章-语用学ppt课件

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1、认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Language in Use主讲人张智鹏主讲人张智鹏Chapter 8 认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 8.1 Speech Act Theory 8.1.1 Performatives and Constatives 8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act8.2 The Th

2、eory of Conversational Implicature 8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle 8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.3 Post-Gricean Developments 8.3.1 Relevance Theory 8.3.2 The Q-and R-principles 8.3.3 The Q-,I-and M-principles认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Definition of

3、 Pragmatics The study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers meaning,utterance meaning,or contextual meaning.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Speakers meaning (A father is trying to get his 3-year-old daughter to stop lif

4、ting up her dress to display her new underwear to the assemble.)Father:We dont DO that.Daughter:I KNOW,Daddy.You dont WEAR dresses.(wear=do)Explanations:Father:“We dont display underwear to others”(Yes)vs.“We dont wear underwear”(No)Daughter:I know you dont wear underwear.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药

5、到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Utterance Meaning vs.Sentence MeaningUtterance vs.Sentence Sentence:abstract units of the language system.Utterance:units of language in use.Sentence meaning:What does X mean?Utterance meaning:What do you mean by X?Dog!My bag is heavy.“Janet!Donkeys

6、!”(David Copperfield)认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Contextual Meaning:meaning in context The meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is,who the hearer is,when and where it is used.It was a hot Christmas day,so we went down to the beach in th

7、e afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.More examples:1.A:Are you going to the seminar?B:Its on linguistics.(Maybe he is not interested in it,so he wouldnt go)2.A:Would you like some coffee?B:Coffee would keep me awake.(I dont like coffee because I would be hard to go asleep with it)认识到

8、了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 John Austin(1911-1960)How to Do Things with Words(1962)speech acts:actions performed via utterances8.1.1 Performatives vs.Constatives（施为句与叙事句）（施为句与叙事句）Constatives:utterances which roughly serves to state a fact,report that so

9、mething is the case,or describe what something is,e.g.:I go to the park every Sunday.I teach English.Performatives:utterances which are used to perform acts,do not describe or report anything at all;the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action;they cannot be said to be true or false.Perfor

10、mative verbs:name,bet,etc.8.1.Speech Act Theory认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 E.g.a.I do.b.I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.c.I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.d.I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.e.I promise to finish it in time.f.I apol

11、ogize.g.I declare the meeting open.h.I warn you that the bull will charge.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Felicity conditions:合适/适切条件A simplified version suggested by Austin is as follows：A.(i)There must be a relevant conventional procedure.（必须有一个相应的规约程序

12、）(ii)the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.（相关的参与者和环境是合适的）B.The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.（该程序必须正确完全地执行）C.Very often,the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts,feelings and intentions,and must follow it up with actions as specified.（有关人员必

13、须有相关的思想、感情和意图，并且必须有相关的后续行为）Problems with felicity conditions:No strict procedure for promising,e.g.I promise.or,I give my word for it.Constatives may also be infelicitous:“I bequeath my watch to my brother”said by somebody without a watch.(T or F?In order for the sentence to be true,it must meet the

14、 condition that“I must own a watch”;otherwise,the sentence is false)认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Features of performatives on syntax and word levels:First person singularSpeech act verbs/performative verbsThe present tenseIndicative moodActive voiceCo

15、nclusion:The distinction between constatives&performatives cannot be maintained.All sentences can be used to do things.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels:A locutionary act（发话行为/

16、言内行为）:the act of saying something in the full sense of“say”.An illocutionary act（行事行为/言外行为）:an act performed in saying something.To say sth is to do sth.In saying X,I was doing Y.In saying“I will come tomorrow”,I was making a promise.Illocutionary force:equivalent to speakers meaning,contextual mean

17、ing,or extra meaning,and may be translated into Chinese as 言外之意.A perlocutionary act（取效行为/言后行为）:the act preformed by or as a result of saying,the effects on the hearer.By saying X and doing Y,I did Z.By saying“I will come tomorrow”and making a promise,I reassure my friends.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后

18、药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 一、术语解释一、术语解释 1.Locutionary Act,Illocutinary Act and Perlocutionary Act(5 points)北京交通大学2005研，武汉大学2005研【答案】According to Austin,a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking.A locutionary act is the uttering of words,phrases,an

19、d clauses,which conveys meaning by giving out meaningful sounds.An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention;it is the act performed in saying something.Therefore,when somebody says“Morning”,we can ask a question like“What did he do?”,and the answer could be“He offered a gree

20、ting.”A perlocutionary act is the effect of the utterance.Thus,by saying“Morning!”the speaker has made it clear that he wants to keep friendly relations with the hearer.When the two speakers are on normal terms,the effect may be negligible.But if there were any tensions between them,a simple“Morning

21、!”from one side may bring about great changes in their relationship.The other may accept this show of friendliness,and be friends with him again.In this case,we can say“hes made peace with his friend”.英英 语语 专专 业业 考考 研研 真真 题题 精精 选选认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总

22、站：圣才学习网 2.constative武汉大学2007研【答案】Constative refers to an utterance that asserts or states something that can be judged as true or false.For example,the statement“The cat is on the floor”is a constative.3.locutionary act武汉大学2008研【答案】According to John Austin,there are three senses in which saying some

23、thing may be understood as doing something.The first sense is an ordinary one.That is,when we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds,organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.The act performed in this sense is called a locutionary act.It is the act of uttering word

24、s,phrases,and clauses，and the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology.The other two acts are illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 4.speech act浙江大学2005研【答案】“Speech act”is a central conc

25、ept in Speech Act Theory,according to which,we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking.Actions performed through utterances are generally called speech acts.5.performatives中山大学2008研【答案】Performatives are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state.They cannot be said to b

26、e true or false.The uttering of these sentences is,or is part of,the doing an action.The judges imprisonment sentence,the presidents war or independence declaration,etc.,are performatives.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 二、简答题二、简答题Please explain the origi

27、nal idea in the speech act theory.南开大学2004研【答案】Speech act theory,originally proposed by Austin,is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication.Austin made a distinction between what he called“constatives and“performatives”.Constatives were statements that either state or des

28、cribe,and were thus verifiable;performatives,on the other hand,were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state,and were not verifiable.Later on,for a variety of reasons,Austin gave up his initial distinction between constatives and performatives.He set up another model to explain the wa

29、y acts were performed by means of language.According to his new model,a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act,illocutionary act,and perlocutionary act.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 三、选择题三、选择题1.Point out whi

30、ch item does not fall under the same category as the rest and explain the reason in ONE sentence.南京大学2007研 A.threaten B.advise C.beseech(恳求)D.urge Focus on the type of illocutionary act 【答案】A Explanation:in terms of illocutionary act,sentence A represents a Commissive（承诺性：说话人将来行为的承诺，如答应、保证等）speech a

31、ct while the others are Directive（指令性：使听话人做某事，如请求命令或要求）.Other kinds of speech are expressive（表情语：表达情感，如道歉、欢迎或同情）,declarative（宣告语：如洗礼命名、宣布结为夫妻、声明辞职等），and representative（表性语：相信命题为真，如断言、假设）。2.is using a sentence to perform a function.西安外国语学院2006研 a.A perlocutionary act b.An illocutionary act c.A locuti

32、onary act d.Speech act 【答案】d认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 3.By saying“You have left the door wide open,”a speaker might be performing the three acts:locutionary,illocutionary and perlocutionary .西安交通大学2008研 A.at the same time B.one after another C.two

33、first and then the other D.one first and then the other two 【答案】A 4.The Illocutionary Act was developed by .西安交通大学2008研 A.John Austin B.Levinson C.John Lyons D.John Searle【答案】D认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 五、填空题五、填空题1.A perlocutionary act is the act pe

34、rformed by or resulting from saying something;it is the of,or the the utterance.人大2004研 【答案】consequence；change brought about by2.When a teacher says“The exam this year is going to be really difficult”,the sentence would have an force.清华大学2000，2001研 【答案】illocutionary六、判断正误题六、判断正误题Speech act theory wa

35、s proposed by G.Leech.北京第二外国语学院2008研【答案】F(Speech act theory was proposed by John Austin)认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Conversational Implicature was proposed by Herbert Paul Grice(1913-1988)William James lectures at Harvard in 1967Logic and Conversatio

36、n in 19758.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle(合作原则合作原则)People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.Grices theory Logic and Conversation is an attempt at explainin

37、g how a hearer gets from what is said to what is meant,from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 The Cooperative Principle(CP):Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occu

38、rs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.(使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向)To specify the CP further,Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows：Maxim of Quantity:(数量准则)1.Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose

39、s of the exchange).2.Do not make your contribution more informative than required.Maxim of Quality:(质量准则)1.Do not say what you believe to be false.2.Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence;Maxim of Relation(关系准则):Be relative.Maxim of Manner(方式准则):Be perspicuous.1.Avoid obscurity of expres

40、sion.2.Avoid ambiguity.3.Be brief.4.Be orderly.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.However,CP is often violated.Since CP is regulative,CP

41、 can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 8.2.2 Violation of the maximsViolation of the maxims(Quantity)1.Make your contribution as informative as is required.A:昨天上街买了些什么?B:就买了些东西。

42、I dont want to tell you what I bought.(from a recommendation letter for a lectureship in philosophy)Dear Sir,Mr.Xs command of English is excellent,and his attendance at tutorials has been regular.Yours,Mr.X is not suitable for the job.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习

43、网 官方总站：圣才学习网 2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Aunt:How did Jimmy do his history exam?Mother:Oh,not at all well.Teachers asked him things that happened before the poor boy was born.Her son should not be blamed.A:Your kid broke the window.B:Boys are boys.Boys are naugh

44、ty and mischievous by nature.War is war.Its no use lamenting the tragedy of war.Terrible things always happen in it.Thats its nature.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Violation of the maxims(Quality)1.Do not say what you believe to be false.You are the cre

45、am in my coffee.You are dear/precious to me.X runs as fast as a deer.X runs very fast.He is made of iron.This man has a strong character like iron.2.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.A:Beirut is in Peru,isnt it?B:And Rome is in Romania,I suppose.Its ridiculous.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对

46、症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Violation of the maxims(Relation)Be relevant.A:Prof.Wang is an old bag.B:Nice weather for the time of year.I dont want to talk about Prof.Wang.周萍：爸爸，不过四凤同鲁贵在家里都很好,很忠诚的。周朴园：恩，我很累了。我预备到书房歇一下。你叫他们送一碗浓一点的普洱茶来。I dont want to listen to this.认识到了贫困户

47、贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Violation of the maxims(Manner)1.Avoid obscurity of expressionA:Lets get the kids something.B:Ok,but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.Dont give them chocolate.2.Avoid ambiguity“Never seek to tell thy love,Love that never told can be.”1.N

48、ever seek to tell your love,the love who can never be told.2.Never seek to tell your love,the love which if told cannot continue to exist.3.Be brief A:Did you get my assignment?B:I received two pages clipped together and covered with rows of black squiggles涂鸦.not satisfied.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后

49、药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature(i)Calculability(可推倒性):the fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and hearers are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable.Hearers work out implicature based on lite

50、ral/conventional meaning,CP and its maxims,context,other items of background knowledge,and the fact that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case.(ii)Cancellability/defeasibility(可取消性):If the li

51、teral meanings,the CP,the linguistic or situational contexts change,the implicature will also change.A:Do you want some coffee?B:Coffee would keep me awake.(violation of relation maxim)I do not want coffee because coffee would keep me awake.I want to sleep;or I want coffee because coffee would keep

52、me awake.I want to stay up.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 (iii)Non-detachability:a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said,not to the linguistic form;implicatures do not vanish if the words of an utterance are chan

53、ged for synonyms.A:Shall we go the cinema tonight?B:Therell be an exam tomorrow.Ill take an exam tomorrow.Isnt there an exam tomorrow?(violation of relation maxim)(iv)Non-conventionality(非常规性):Conversational implicature is different from its conventional meaning of words.It is context-dependent.It v

54、aries with context.A1：下午踢球去吧！A2：老王住院了？B：上午还在换草皮。A3:足球场安装了一个新门柱。认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Politeness PrincipleGrices CP does not explain why speakers often violate CP.Geoffrey Leech:Professor of Linguistics and Modern English Language at Lancaster U

55、niversity from 1974 to 2002.Principles of Pragmatics(1983):puts forward PP to save CP.Self(自身)-refers to the speaker.Other(他人)-refers to the addressee or a third person,present or not.Benefit(惠)&Cost(损)Generally speaking,if there is benefit,there must be cost.For some acts such as giving an invitati

56、on,a piece of advice and an offer are considered polite-natured,for other is always on the beneficial side.For other acts like a request,an order and a demand are considered impolite-natured,for other is always on the cost side.补充知识点补充知识点认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英

57、语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Tact Maxim(得体准则)Generosity Maxim(慷慨准则)Approbation Maxim(赞誉准则)Modesty Maxim(谦虚准则)Agreement Maxim(一致准则)Sympathy Maxim(同情准则)认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Tact Maxim a)Minimize cost to other b)Maximize benefit to otherGenerosity Maxim a)Min

58、imize benefit to self b)Maximize cost to self（请）把车借给我用两天。（请）洗一洗这些衣服。（请）把铅笔递一下。（请）把房间打扫一下。我想知道你是否有时间打扫一下房间。（请）吃点水果吧。认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Approbation Maxima)Minimize dispraise of otherb)Maximize praise of otherModesty Maxima)Minimize praise of s

59、elfb)Maximize dispraise of self A：我的西装怎么样？B：难看死啦。(violation)怎么说呢，不过我觉得颜色深了点。A：今天真倒霉！B：我说的吧，自找的。(violation)过去就算了，别再想啦。认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 Agreement Maxima)Minimize disagreement between self and other b)Maximize agreement between self and other

60、 Sympathy Maxima)Minimize antipathy(反感)between self and otherb)Maximize sympathy between self and otherA：我提议大家明天到江边烧烤。B：我没意见。可以，但风太大啊。(violation)我不去，没意思。A：我的腿不方便。B：我知道，上次摔断了。(violation)那小心点，我来吧。认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 一、术语解释一、术语解释1.conversational

61、 implicature武汉大学2004研，北京交通大学2007研【答案】Conversational implicature refers to a type of implied meaning,which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context,under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.For example,the implicature of He is a tiger could probably be

62、he has some characteristics of a tiger.2.cooperative principle北京师范大学2003研【答案】Cooperative principle was proposed and formulated by Grice.It expresses that in making a conversation,the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate;otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the ta

63、lk.It goes like this:“make your conversational contribution such as is required,at the stage at which it occurs,by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”.This principle can be further specified as the four following maxims:Quantity,Quality,Relation;Manner.英英

64、 语语 专专 业业 考考 研研 真真 题题 精精 选选认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 3.Violation of maxims(5 points)北京交通大学2006研【答案】Violation of maxims:There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle.For example,in conversation,a speak

65、er may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like“No comment”in response to a question.Although it is typically not“as informative as is required”in the context,it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said(i.e.the speaker knows the answer).This typical reaction to a

66、ny apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature.When we violate any of these maxims,our language becomes indirect.In this way,we can convey more than is literally said.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 二、简答题二、简答题Decide which maxim of the cooperative principle has been flouted in the following utterances and what implicature can be drawn.(5 points)厦门大学2006研 (1)A:Can you tell me the secret?B:But John is