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1、Chapter 1 The Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1、The Definition of a WordLexicology focuses on the study of meanings and origins of words.b5E2RGbCAPAccording to sema nti cis ts语义学家），a word is a unit of meaning.p1EanqFDPwA word is a minimal 最小的） free form of a language that has a given sound， me

2、aningDXDiTa9E3dand syntactic function句法功能）.2、VocabularyAll the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary.RTCrpUDGiT3、Sound and MeaningThe relationship between sound and meaning is no logic5PCzVD7HxA4、Sound and FormThere was more agreement between sound and form in OldEngl

3、ish than in Modern English.jLBHrnAILgWith the development of the language， more and more differences arose between sound and xHAQX74J0X form.5、Classification of WordsNo.ClassificationExampleNotes1Byuse frequencyBasic WordSt ock基本词汇）The basic word stock forms the common core共合）of the language. Pronou

4、ns代 词）and numerals aresemantically monosemous 单 一的） and fairly limited in the respect of productivity 多 产性）and collocab ilit y搭配性）.The most important feature of the basic word stock is all national character.NonbasicVocabularyArchaisms古词语）：thou Neologisms Technical Terms2By notion 有无实义）Con ten t Wor

5、ds实义词）Functional Words3By OriginNative WordsBorrowedWordsDenizens同代词）：port、 shir tAliens非同代词）：dOcor Transla tion Loans 译借 词）：lama喇嘛）4ByMorphology形态）Simple WordsCompounds and Derived Words6、简答1）、What is the relationship between sound and meaning?Give examples to illustrate it.LDAYtRyKfEThe relationsh

6、ip between sound and meaning is arbitraryandconventional.In different Zzz6ZB2Ltk languages, the same concept can be shown bydifferent sounds.“Woman”, for example, dvzfvkwMI1 becomes “Frau” in German, “Femme” in French and“fu nv” in Chinese. On the other rqyn14ZNXI hand, the same sound mi:t is used t

7、o mean “meet, meat, mete”, denoting different EmxvxOtOco things. is that thereare more phonemes音素)than letters 6ewMyirQFL in English. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than kavU42VRUs spelling over the years. The third reasons that some of the differences more created

8、 by y6v3ALoS89the early scribes. The fourth reason is the borrowing.M2ub6vSTnP3)、How are words classified in the course book?Words can be classified by different criteria and for different purposes. Words may fall 0YujCfmUCwinto: the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency。 content

9、 words and eUts8ZQVRdfunctional words by notion 。 native words and borrowed words by origin 。 simple words, sQsAEJkW5T compounds and derived words by morphology.4 ) 、 What is the difference between denizens and aliens?GMsIasNXkADenizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilat

10、ed完全同化) TIrRGchYzg into the English language. But aliens are borrowed words which have retained their 7EqZcWLZNX original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign lzq7IGf02E in origin.Chapter 2 The Development of the EnglishVocabularyzvpgeqJ1hk1、The Indo-Europe

11、an Language FamilyThe prehistoric Indo-European parent language, thoughtto be a highly inflec ted内部曲折 Nrpojac3vl语）language.GroupClassificationIncludingEasterSet 陈支Balto-SlavicPrussian、Lithuanina立陶宛语）、Czech捷 克语）IndoTranianPersian、Bengali孟力口拉）、Hindi、RomanyWesternSet西支）CelticScottish、 Irish、 WelshHelle

12、nicGreekItalicFive Romance languages:Portuguese、 Spanish、 French、 Italian、 RomanianGermanicFour Northern European Languages （Scandinavian languages:Norwegian挪威语）、Icelandic冰岛 语）、Danish、SwedishGerman、Dutch荷兰语）、Flemish佛兰芒 语）、English2、 Three Phases of the Historical DevelopmentThe first peoples who inha

13、bited the land wereCelts.1nowfTG4KIThe second language known in English was Latin of theRoman Legions.fjnFLDa5Zo1）、Old English450-1150）In the 9th century England was invaded byNorwegian and Danish Vikings.tfnNhnE6e5 2)、Middle English1150-1500)The French influence on English vocabulary was one of the

14、 significant points of the HbmVN777sL Middle English period.The most important fact of the Middle English period was the steady erosion of the V7l4jRB8Hs inflectional systems of Old English.3)、Modern English1500-present)In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning anci

15、ent83lcPA59W9 Greek and Roman classics.It is estimated that about one fourth of modern English vocabulary has come from French.mZkklkzaaP3、Foreign Elements in the English VocabularyIn earlier stages of English, Latin, Greek, French andScandinavian were the four major AVktR43bpw contributors.The simu

16、ltaneous existence of French, Latin and English lasted for a century.ORjBnOwcEd4、Modes of Vocabulary DevelopmentModern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change 旧 2MiJTy0dTT词新义）and borrowing.Creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.gIiSpiue7A5、简答

17、What are the characteristics of Old English?Old English also known as the Anglo-Saxon, has a vocabulary of about 50000 to uEh0U1Yfmh60000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirelyGermanic with only a IAg9qLsgBXfew borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian. OldEnglish was a highly inflected WwghW

18、vVhPE language.It was a synthetic language综合性语言）.Mod ern English is an analytic asfpsfpi4klanguage）Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English WordsooeyYZTjj11、MorphemesThe minimal meaningful units in English are known as morphemes词素）.BkeGuInkxI2、Classifying MorphemesNo.ClassificationNotes1Free mor

19、phemeBound morpheme粘着词素）include two types: bound root and affixare chiefly found in derived words2Derivational morphemeconfined to suffixes function as grammatical markersInflectional morpheme 曲折词素）3Content morpheme实义词素）On a semantic and syntactic basis, morphemes can fall into content/lexical and g

20、rammatical morphemes.Grammatical morpheme3、 Morphs形素）Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as PgdO0sRlMo morphs.4、Allomorphs 词素变体）An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs,which represent one morpheme.3cdXwckm155、 AffixNo.ClassificationNotes1Infl

21、ectional affixesaccording to the functionDerivational affixes2prefixin view of t heir dis trib ution位置） in the wordsSuffixes embrace both derivational suffixes and inflectional suffixes.suffix6、A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of h8c52WOngM ident

22、ity.7、简答1）、What is the difference between free morphemes and bound morphemes?v4bdyGiousFree morphemes which have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free J0bm4qMpJ9 grammatical units in sentences are independent of other morphemes, but bound XVauA9grYP morphemes which cannot occur as

23、separate. Words are bound to other morphemes bR9C6TJscw to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.pN9LBDdtrd2）、What is the difference between derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes?DJ8T7nHuGTDerivational morphemes are used to derive new words, but inflectional morpheme

24、s are QF81D7bvUAemployed used to indicate the syntactic In adjective-plus-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.Kp5zH46zRkVerb compounds are created either though conversion or through back-formation.Yl4HdOAA613、Conversion转类法）The conversion that takes place between

25、nouns and verbsis the most productive.ch4PJx4BlIThe conversion of two syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of stress. qd3YfhxCzoNouns fully converted from adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns.E836L11DO54、Blending 拼缀法）The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns5、Back-formation逆身法

26、）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite processof suffixation.S42ehLvE3M6、简答1）、What is the main difference between prefixes and suffixes?501nNvZFisUnlike prefixes which primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, suffixes jW1viftGw9have only a small semantic role, their primaryfun

27、ction being to changes the xS0DOYWHLPgrammatical function of a base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slightmodification of meaning.LOZMkIqI0w2）、What are the three main features of compounds?The three main features of compounds are phonological features, semantic features and ZKZUQsUJed gram

28、matical features. The word stress of a compound usually occurs on the first element.dGY2mcoKtTEach compound should express a single idea just as one word. A compound tends to play rCYbSWRLIA a single grammatical role in a sentence.3）、What is back-formation? What are the characteristics of back-forma

29、tion? FyXjoFlMWhBack-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.TuWrUpPObXWords created through back-formation are verbs.Stylistically, back-formed words are 7qWAq9jPqElargely informal and some of them have not successfully gained currency.llVIWTNQFk word+tailBookmob

30、ile(book+automobile、 workfare(work+welfare, tourmobile(tour+automobile2Clipping截短法）Fro nt Clippingquake(earthquake、 copter(helicopter、 chute(parachute, phone(telephone、scope(telescopeBackClippingmemo(memorandum、 gent(gentleman、 fan(fanatic、 disco(discothequeFront andBackClippingflu(influenza、 fridge

31、(refrigeratorPhraseClippingpub(public house、 zoo(zoological garden、pop(popular music3AcronymyInitialisVOA、 BBC (British Broadcasting首字母拼音msCorporation、法）首字母缩略UFO (unidentified flying object、(Dependin词）TB (tuberculosisg on the pronunciati onAcronymsNATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization、AIDS (a

32、cquired immune deficiency syndrome、CORE (Congress of Racial Equality、TEFL (teaching English as a foreign language、1、“Medicare” and “sitcom” are blends. “Medicare” isformed by combining the head of“medicalGXRw1kFW5sand the word “care”, and “sitcom” is formed by combining the head of “situation” and t

33、hat of UTREx49Xj9“comdey.2、”Memo”and“flu” are clipped words. “Memo” is formed by clipping the lack of 8PQN3NDYyP“memorandum” and “flu” is formed clipping the front and lack of “influenza”.mLPVzx7ZNw3、”TB ”a nd “N ATO ”a re new words created t hro ugh acronymy.“TB” from “tuberculosis” is an AHP35hB02

34、dinitialism, while “NATO” from “the North Atlantic Treaty Organization” is an acronym.Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis成份分析法)ND0cB141gT 1、ReferenceWords are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired 1zOk7Ly2vAreference.2、Concept概念）Meaning and concept are clo

35、sely connected but notidentical.fuNsDv23KhConcept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective tqMB9ew4YXworld in the human mind.3、SenseUnlike reference, sense denotes the relationships insidethe language.HmMJFY05dE4、Motivation4Etymological Motivation词源理据）pen

36、5、Types of MeaningNo.ClassificationNotes1GrammaticalMeaningLexical meaning and grammatical meaning form the word meaning.Lexical meaning itself embraces two components: conceptual meaning and associativemeaning.Functional words, thought having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meani

37、ng whereas content words have both meanings, and their lexical meanings are prominent.LexicalMeaning 词汇意义）2ConceptualMeaningThere are few words with the same conceptual meaning and the same stylistic meaning.AssociativeMeaning1）、Conceptual Meaning and Associative MeaningNo.ClassificationExampleNotes

38、1Connotative Meaning 内涵意义）mother、 home1、Opposite to the denotative meaning,connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning.2、Connotative meaning varies considerably according to culture,historical period, and the experience of the individual.2Stylistic

39、Meaning文体意义）They chucked a stone at the cops, and then did a bunk with the loot.After casting a stone at the police, they absconded with the money.3AffectiveMeaning感情意义）Positive、Negative、Bo thappreciative褒义 的）or pejorative 贬 义的：1、Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciat

40、ive or pejorative.2、Affective meaning, which is unstable, differs from the conceptual meaning.4CollocativeMeaning搭配意义）pretty woman and handsome woman6、简答1）、What is reference? What are the characteristics ofreference?9eK0GsX7H1Reference is the relationship between language and the world. By means of

41、reference, a naK8ccr8VI speaker indicates which things in the world are being talked about. The reference of a B6JgIVV9ao word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.Although reference is P2IpeFpap5a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something

42、definite.3YIxKpScDM .3)、What is the difference between conceptual meaning and associative meaning?ozElQQLi4TConceptual meaning known as cognitive, denotative, or designative is the meaning given CvDtmAfjiA in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.But Associative meaning is the QrDCRkJkxh

43、 secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the 4nCKn3dlMX conceptual meaning because it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of ijCSTNGm0E such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, vfB1pxanfk education, e

44、tc. .1、Homophones are words identical only in spelling but different in two other aspects.2、Of the three types of homonyms, homophonesconstitute the largest number and are most commonHomophones 同音异义）dear & deerBorrowingfair(a marke t, borrowed from Latin & fair(pretty from Old EnglishShorteningrock(

45、shortened from3 Synonymy同义关系）Antonymy反乂关系）rock and roll & rock（a large mass of stoneRelativesmall & tinySynonyms相对同义词）Complementari true & falsees互补反义词）Contraries相对反义词）1、Synonyms may differ in the range andintensity of meaning2、Absolute synonyms are words which areidentical in meaning in all its asp

46、ec ts.3、Relative synonyms are similar or nearly the same indenotative meaning外延意义）4、Of the various sources of synonyms, the most important is borrowing.5、Relative synonyms, also called by some people nearsynonyms, are similar or nearly the same indenotation.Converses 逆反反义词）husband & wiferelational o

47、pposites 关系反义词）defining the meanings of a given word.2、 Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.5Hyponymy上下义关系）Superordina te t erms 上义词）The relationship of inclusion内 包）is called hyponymy.Subordinate t erms 下义词）“tulip”郁金香）& “rose” are theSubordinate terms“flower”The first meanin

48、g of a word is called primary meaning.Later meanings are called derived meaningsRQxPvY3tFsThe meaning of a more specific word is include in that ofanother more general word.5MxX1IxuU9简答What is the difference between radiation and concatenation 连锁型）？jIw5xs0v9PUnlike radiation where each of the derive

49、d meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning, concatenation describes a process where each of the later meanings is related only to the preceding one like chains.Chapter 7 Changes in Word MeaningxEve2buwnwThe vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in the signshapes and sign contents.KAvmyVYxCd1、Types of ChangeNo.FactorsReasonsExampleNotes1Extra- linguisticFactors 非语言因 素）PsychologicalReason“copperhea