板块的构造基础

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1、基本论点：板块的构造基础 Based on plate tectonicBasic argument地球外部的岩石圈并非完整的一块，它被构造活动带分割成许多块体，称为板块 岩石圈板块漂浮在软流圈之上，不断地生长、移动、消亡。The lithosphere outside the Earth is not a complete one piece, it was split into many blocks because of the tect onic activity, known as the Plate。Lithosphere plates float ing on the asthe

2、 no sphere,c on sta ntly grow, move and demise.板块边界是地球表面最活动的地带，绝大多数地震、火山分布于活动带上，而板 块内部则是相对稳定的地区。The most active area of the Earth surface is plate boun dary,where most earthquakes and volca nic distribute on, while the regi on with in the plate is relatively stable.板块运动是形成地表各种构造形变根本原因。Plate tectonic

3、 movement is the root cause of various of the Earth surface structural deformation形成原因：Causes:发现大西洋两岸的轮廓竟如此相互对应，特别是巴西东端的直角突出部分，与非 洲西岸呈直角凹进的几内亚湾非常吻合Both sides of the Atlantic that has the outline of such a mutual counterparts, particularly the eastern end of the rectangular Brazil prominent part of t

4、he West Bank and the African Aojin a right angle of the Gulf of Guinea is very an astomosis.远隔重洋的大西洋两岸，许多生物之间存在着亲缘关系，保存在地层中的古生物 化石存在相似性 In the both sides of the Atlantic are separated by vast oceans，many of relationship exists between, stored in the formation of fossils exist similarity.在大洋两岸的大陆对应位置

5、上的地质构造可以相互拼接In the ocean on both sides of the mainland counterparts on the location of the geological structure can be mutually Mosaic.结论：Conclusion大约在两亿年前，地球上现有的大陆欧亚大陆、美洲、非洲、南极洲和澳大利 亚曾是彼此相连，构成一个统一的超级大陆一冈瓦纳大陆About two million years ago, existing on the planet - Europe and Asia, the Americas, Africa,

6、 Antarctica and Australia was connected to each other, forming a unified super - Gondwana continent.当时大西洋尚未出现，北美东岸紧挨在非洲撒哈拉大沙漠的西缘At that time, the Atlantic has not yet appeared, the North American east coast close to the Sahara Desert in Africas western border.我国西藏的南缘，却是一片汪洋大海Ch in as Tibets souther

7、n edge, it is an ocean. 印度次大陆远在相距万里以外的大洋彼岸，它与南极洲紧紧相连Far away from the Indian subcontinent in Miles away from the other side of the ocean, closely linked with the Antarctic.以后，这块超级大陆开始四分五裂，美洲相对于欧洲和非洲向西漂移。而印度次 大陆脱离南极洲向北漂移 After the beginning of this super continent torn apart, the Americas compared to

8、 Europe and Africa westward drift. Antarctica and the Indian subcontinent from the north drift. 板块构造说是在 大陆漂移和海 底扩张学说 的基础上引 伸发展而形成 的 Plate tectonics is in seafloor spreading and continental drift theory on the basis of the formation and development of extension.大陆漂移说：That continental drift 大陆漂移说的内容 T

9、hat the content of continental drift 大陆漂移的证据 The evidence of continental drift 大陆漂移说的内容：That the content of continental drift魏格纳大陆由较轻的刚性的硅铝层组成，它漂浮在较重的粘性的硅镁质洋底 之上，硅铝层原曾覆盖过地球的整个表面，随后由于皱缩使其面积减小而厚度增 大，到古生代末期和中生代初期演变成一整块联合古陆(即泛大陆)，相应的海 域只有一个，即泛大洋。Eugene mainland by the lesser of the Si-layer rigid, float

10、ing in the heavier viscosity of the ocean floor above-Si-Mg, Si-layer has covered the entire surface of the Earth, and then because of its shrinkage Reduce the increasing size and thickness, the late Paleozoic to Mesozoic and early evolution into a block joint ancient land (that is, pan-continent),

11、the corresponding area there is only one, namely the Pan-Ocean.中生代开始，特别是侏罗纪时，这个大陆裂开、解体，并发生水平移动，于 是形成今天的各大洲和各大洋。大西洋和印度洋是在大陆解体、漂移过程中的产 物，原来的泛大洋缩小为今日之太平洋 Mesozoic, especially the Jurassic, the continent split and disintegration, and in the level of movement, therefore formed todays continents and ocean

12、s. Atlantic and Indian Ocean in the disintegration of the mainland, the drift in the process of product, the original Pan-Ocean narrow for todays Pacific.大陆漂移的方向：Continental drift in the direction一是自地球两极向赤道的离极移动如两亿多年前聚集在南极的南半球诸大 陆向北四散漂移，并在非洲、印度和欧亚大陆之间形成阿尔卑斯喜玛拉雅褶皱 山系 First, since the two poles to the

13、 equator of the earth from the very mobile as more than 200 million years ago gathered in the southern hemisphere all the Antarctic continent scattered northward drift, and in Africa, India and Eurasia formed between the Alps - Himalaya Mou ntai ns fol.另一是向西漂移如美洲大陆西移因太平洋底的抵抗而在大 陆西线形成科迪勒拉和安第斯山系，在大陆的东

14、部则脱落下一些落伍的碎块形成 岛屿， Another is the westward drift as a result of the American continent west Pacific at the end of the resistance in the mainland and the Western form of the Andean Cordillera and in the eastern part of the mainland while falling backward under some of the fragments formed islands如在亚洲

15、大陆后方的日本、琉球、台湾、菲律宾岛，在澳 洲大陆东面的新西兰岛，在中美洲东面的古巴、安德列斯群岛，在非洲大陆东面 的马达加斯加岛，印度东侧的锡兰岛，以及尾随在南美洲南端的马尔维纳斯群岛 等， If the rear of the Asian mainland Japan, Okinawa, Taiwan, the Philippines Island, east of the mainland in Australia, New Zealand Island, east of Cuba in Central America, Andreas Islands, the African cont

16、inent in the east of Madagascar Island, east India The Ceylon Island, followed in South America and the southern tip of the Malvinas Islands. 并且掉队 愈远，岛屿愈小 And from the more distant, smaller islands.之后的进展：After the progress魏格纳的学说曾经盛行一时。但是，硅镁层实际是刚性的，硅铝质大陆不能 在其上航行，人们不了解有什么机制能使大陆发生漂移。Eugene was the prev

17、ailing theory 1:00. However, the real-Si-Mg layer is rigid, silicon aluminum on the mainland can not be in their voyage, people do not know what mechanism can drift in the mainland.大陆漂移说本身的依据还不足，某些证据可作另外的解释，尤其是缺乏定量 的证据，不易使人信服。加之传统的固定论势力强大，大陆漂移说在一些地质学 和地球物理学权威的极力反对之下，未能得到广泛的支持而逐渐衰落 Continental drift

18、that itself is also the basis for the lack of evidence for some other explanation, especially the lack of quantitative evidence, not convincing. In addition, the traditional fixed on the powerful, continental drift that in a number of Geology and Geophysics under the authority of the strong oppositi

19、on, failed to receive broad support and gradually fading.杜.托伊特提出古生代不只一个而是有两个联合古陆，即北半球的劳亚古陆 和南半球的冈瓦纳古陆，其间为特提斯海分开 MRS. Paleozoic Toit made more than one but two joint ancient land, that is, the Northern Hemisphere land Laurasia and Gondwana ancient land of the southern hemisphere, which is separated f

20、rom Tethys.认为是重力驱动大陆漂移，大陆块由于边缘地槽堆积负载而略倾斜，重力使 它在地幔上滑向大洋，大陆中心受到拉张产生裂陷，这些裂陷使得岩浆得以上升 而使裂陷地区进一步裂开和穹起， 进而促使大陆外移 That is gravity-driven continental drift, the mainland to block the edge because of the accumulation tank load and slightly tilted, the mantle of gravity so that it slid on the ocean, the mainla

21、nd centres have been stretching rift, the rift magma to make up 而使 rift In further disruption and Qiong, then the relocation to the mainland霍尔姆斯的地幔对流驱动大陆漂移 Holmes, the mantle convection drive continental drift 现代的概念：The modern concept 大陆漂移是在岩石圈与软流圈界面上漂移 Continental drift in the lithosphere and the a

22、sthenosphere interface drift.即由地壳和地幔盖层组成的岩石圈板块，驮载在缓慢流动的低速层之上，后者起 了一个润滑作用，使得上覆的岩石圈板块受海底扩张和地幔对流等作用而向两侧 移动 That is, from the cover composition of the crust and upper mantle of lithosphere plates, piggyback on the slow movement of low-velocity layer above, the latter played a role in lubrication, making

23、 the overlying plate lithosphere by seafloor spreading and mantle convection to the role of Bilateral mobile.大陆漂移的证据：The evidence of continental drift大陆的拼合Pieced together in the mainland古生物证据Palaeontological evidence地质构造方面的证据 Geological structure of evidence 冰川证据Glacier evidence古气保证据 According to an

24、cient gas guarantee 古地磁Paleomagnetism深海勘测方面的证据 Deep-sea investigation of the evidence 大陆的拼合：Pieced together in the mainland 大陆边界的拼合是以海岸线为标准的，但陆壳与洋壳存在着原则性的区别，陆壳 边界并不是以海岸线为界，而应以大陆坡的坡脚附近为准 The border is pieced together in the mainland coastline as a standard, but the continental crust and oceanic crust

25、 there is a principled distinction between continental crust is not to the coastline to the border sector, but to the continentai slope near the foot of the slope prevail.一般米取大陆坡某一定的等深线915进行拼合General to take the continentai slope of a certa in depth of 915 to comb ine.古土物的证据：Palaeontological evidene

26、e相同的生物物种是不可能在相隔遥远的两个地区分别独立地形成的，它们必 定起源于某一地区，然后直接地或通过第三地区传播到另一地区The same biological species is not possible in the gap between the two distant regions were formed independently, they must be originated in a particular area, and then either directly or through a third area spread to another area.在大西洋两

27、岸找到的某些化石极为相似，如果不考虑这两个大陆曾经相连在 一起，是很难解释的 Both sides of the Atlantic to find fossils of some very similar, if not consider these two have connected with the mainland, it is difficult to explain.如非洲和南美均发现有 CP 时期的陆生动物水龙兽化石 Such as Africa andSouth America have found that C-P during the Lystrosaurus terres

28、trial animal fossils; T1 时期，肯氏兽动物群在非洲、南美、欧洲、亚洲及北美洲均有分布，这也证明了 该时期联合古大陆的存在。T1 period, Kens animal fauna in Africa, South America, Europe, Asia and North America have distribution, which also show that the period of the existence of the ancient continent.地质构造方面的证据：Geological structure of evidence有许多地质构

29、造在非洲大陆的海岸突然中断，而在大西洋对岸大陆的海岸重新出 现位于非洲最南端的好望角东西向的二叠纪褶皱山开普勒山脉，在海岸线突然中 断，但却与南美的布宜诺斯附近的山脉在地层和构造上彼此衔接。There are many geological structure in the con ti nen ts coast sudde nly in terrupted, and the other side of the Atlantic coast of the mainlands re-emergence of the Cape of Good Hope at Africas southernmos

30、t tip of things to the fold of the Permian-Kepler Mountains. A sudden in terruptio n in the coastl ine, but the cloth and South America To the n earby mountains in the North formati on and structure of con verge nce on each other.横贯美国东部的阿巴拉契亚山脉，以北东走向延伸到纽芬兰，中止于大西洋， 但又重新出现于大西洋对岸的爱尔兰和英国。 Across the Uni

31、ted States east of the Appalachian Mountains, north of East to extend to Newfoundland, suspended in the Atlantic Ocean, but the re-emergence on the other side of the Atlantic Ireland and the United Kingdom.如果把大西洋两岸的大陆对接在一起，不仅在地形轮廓上，而且在岩石类型 和地质构造上也可以对接起来。 If both sides of the Atlantic docking with th

32、e mainland,not only in the terrain contour , but also in types of rocks and geological structure, it can also dock. 这种对接就好象把撕碎了的报纸再拼合起来一样 This docking as if the tear of the newspaper pieced together with the same again.冰川证据：Glacier evidence古生代晚期(约 3 亿年前)在南半球各大陆的大部分地区都普遍发生过冰川 作用 Late Paleozoic Late P

33、aleozoic (about 3 million years ago) in the southern hemisphere continents are the most widespread occurrence of the glaciation. 这次冰川作用所遗留 下来的堆积物及冰川痕迹是极易辨认的，冰川底下的基岩上，由于冰川移动所留 下的擦痕与沟槽，表明了冰川流动的方向。The role of glaciers left behind by glaciers and the accumulation of signs is easy to identify, on the bed

34、rock beneath the glacier, the glacier left behind by mobile Cahen and the trench, indicating the direction of the movement of glaciers. 这些确凿的冰川遗迹，广泛分布于现在的南美洲、非洲、澳 大利亚南部和印度半岛(以后在南极洲也有发现)，这些地方除了南极洲现在仍 为冰川覆盖之外，其它地方目前都处在热带和温带These proved the remains of glaciers, now widely distributed in the South Ameri

35、ca, Africa, Australia and India the southern peninsula (later also found in Antarctica), where in addition to Antarctica is still the glacier coverage, other places are currently in the tropical and temperate .古气候证据：Paleoclimatic evidence一些显著的气候变迁的证据，也有利于大陆漂移的理论。 Some notable evidence of climate cha

36、nge, but also conducive to the theory of continental drift.南极洲的大量煤炭沉积表明，现在这个几乎完全为冰川覆盖的地区曾经是大量植 物繁茂的地方 Antarcticas massive coal deposition shows that this is now almost completely covered by the glacier area has a large number of lush plants.其他一些大陆上的岩盐和风成砂岩沉积，也提供了古气候的特征标志，根据这些 沉积物可以恢复以往的气候分带 Some oth

37、er continent into the sandstone sedimentary rock salt and wind, but also provides a characteristic signs of ancient climate, according to these sediments can be resumed before the climate zone.古地磁：Paleomagnetism 许多岩石都显示磁性，它是在岩石形成时获得的，并可能在后来有所变更。Many rock show that the magnetic properties, it is when

38、 the rock was formed, and may later be changed.沉积岩的磁化是矿物或碎屑在沉积过程中形成的。The magnetic sedime ntary rocks, min erals or debris is in the process of formi ng the depositi on.经一系 列外力作用后，从陆地搬运到海中的各种碎屑物质，其中有许多铁磁性物质在历 史上某一较早阶段中已发生过磁化 After a series of external force, moving from land to sea in the debris of v

39、arious substances, many of which are ferromagnetic material in the history of a particular has occurred in an earlier stage of the magnetization.由于岩石的磁性具有较大的稳定性，如果通过适当的方法把岩石在形成以后 获得的一些磁性消除掉，就可以把岩石的原始磁性测定出来，这种原始磁性可以 指示岩石生成时期古地磁场的方向，并算出当时的古地磁纬度以及古地磁极的位I I I置 As the magnetic properties of rocks with gr

40、eater stability, if the adoption of appropriate ways to obtain a rock formation in the elimination of some magnetic swap, will be able to rock out of the original magnetic. This magnetic may direct the original period of ancient rock formation in the direction of the magnetic field, and then calcula

41、ted the ancient geomagnetic latitude and ancient pole position.深海勘测方面的证据：Deep-sea investigation of the evidence在洋底进行的勘测结果说明，大西洋洋中脊平行于大西洋的大陆边界，它几 乎把欧洲、非洲与美洲之间的洋底分成了二等分。In the ocean floor for the investigation results show that the Atlantic Ocean in the Atlantic ridge parallel to the border of the mai

42、nland, it is almost to Europe, Africa and the Americas between the ocean floor into a seco nd-class sub.洋中脊的中间为一条裂谷性质的中央山谷可能代表联合 古陆破裂和分离所产生的痕迹 Ocean Ridge to the middle of the central nature of a rift valley, may represent the ancient land by the rupture and separation of the traces.而从另一些洋底勘察资料来看，海洋

43、盆地是地球表面比较年轻的部分。 From the ocean floor and some other survey data, the ocean basins the Earths surface is relatively you ng part.而且在断陷了的洋脊下面不断发生地幔物质的上涌And a rift in the ridges below the mantle material in the upwelling.这些观点形成了海底扩张的概念These views formed a sea-floor spreading the concept.大陆漂移学说的证据虽然很多，但仍

44、存在许多问题。 Continental drift of the evide nee, though many, but there are still many problems.最主要的问题是漂移的机制 和动力。The main issue is the shift mechanism and power.当时魏格纳认为月球的引 潮力是坚固的大陆能在海洋地壳上象破冰船一样前进 At that time, Eugene that the moons tidal force is strong in the oceanic crust to the mainland on the same f

45、orward as the icebreaker.但这一设想很快被地球物理学家杰弗里斯的计算结果否定了。But this vision will soon be geophysicist Jefferies rejected the results of the calculation到了 20 世 纪 30 年代大陆漂移学说就慢慢衰落下来。 By the 1930s on the theory of continental drift slowly fading down.后来在 60 年代发展为板块构造学说。 Later in the 1960s for the development o

46、f plate tectonic theory.海底扩张说：Harbour said expansion一些洋底山脉标志着对流体的上升地点。 Mountains on the ocean floor indicates that some of the increase in fluid place. 地幔物质从大洋中脊或大陆裂谷上涌，向两 旁溢流并推开旧有的洋底物质，对流物质不断上涌逐渐向两侧对称地扩张，扩张 速度为 112cm/a，形成新的洋底。Mantle material from the ocean ridge in the Rift Valley or on the mainlan

47、d Chung, to overflow on both sides of the ocean floor and open the old material, the material on the convection Chung gradually to the expansion of bilateral symmetry, the rate of expa nsion for the 1 12 cm / a, to form a new The ocea n floor.大 陆地壳与洋底是粘合在一起的，并随着洋底的扩张一起运动，当运行到海沟处， 便向下俯冲，插入地幔，重新被熔融，成为

48、一个巨大的循环运动体 Continental crust and the ocean floor is the glue togethe,rand together with the expansion of the ocean floor exercise, when the running to the trench, then dive down into the mantle, was re-melt and become a huge circle of movement.大洋磁异常的显著特点，是正负磁异常沿大洋中脊两侧呈条带状相间排列 Ocean magnetic anomalie

49、s of the notable feature is the positive and negative magnetic anomaly along both sides of the ocean ridge with a banded phase.地幔物质向上涌，新生的玄武岩浆沿洋中脊形成一个新的地壳条带，当它冷 凝至居里点温度以下时，便沿当时磁场方向被磁化。Mantle material upward Chung, new basaltic magma along the ocean ridge in the earths crust to form a new band, when

50、it condensed to the following Curie temperature, it will be along the direction of magnetic field at the time. 随着地幔物质不断涌出，早先形成的地壳条带便从中脊被推开， 海底发生了扩张，新的洋鞘占据了它原来的位置 With the material out of the mantle, the crust formed earlier bands will be open from the ridge, Harbour has expanded, the new foreign she

51、ath occupied its original location如果这时地球磁场发生转向产生于洋中 脊的新地壳便具有相反方向的地磁极性，这样就形成了与先前形成的海底磁化方 向相反的一条磁异常 条带 If the shift occurred when the Earths magnetic field, generated in the new ocean crust in the ridge will have the opposite direction of the geomagnetic polarity, and this formed the previous formatio

52、n of the seabed magnetized the opposite direction of a magnetic anomaly of the band.大西洋洋底沉积物：Atlantic ocean floor sediments最年轻的沉积物在洋中脊的地方，离开中脊越远，沉积物的时代越老(J3) The youngest sediments in the ocean ridge, the farther left the ridge, the older sediments of the times (J3). 洋底地壳的年龄以大洋中脊为对称轴，向远离洋中脊的两边有规律地增加

53、 The ocean floor to the age of oceanic crust in the ridge axis of symmetry, to stay away from the ocean ridge on both sides of the law have increased. 洋底沉积层的厚度自中脊轴部向两侧逐渐增大 The ocean floor since the thickness of sedimentary layers in the side of the ridge axis is gradually increasing.转换断层：Transform f

54、aults洋中脊以及两侧的磁性条带并不是连续，而是被一系列的巨大断裂带所错开，这种横向断裂带与一般所称的平移断层是不一样的Ocean Ridge and the magnetic strip on either side is not continuous, but by a series of staggered by the great fault, this horizontal fault zone and the general referred to as the translation fault is not the same.转换断层是岩石圈板块的交接边界，一般发育在洋底，但

55、也可以在大陆上出现 Conversion is the fault of the transfer of the lithosphere plate boundary, the general development of the ocean floor, but can also appear on the mainland.海底磁异常条带和大洋沉积物特征，海底大规模的转换断层等都有力地证实 了赫斯和迪茨的海底扩张说 With magnetic anomalies of the seabed and the ocean sediment characteristics, large-scal

56、e conversion seabed fault and so effectively confirmed the Hess and the sea-floor spreading Dietz said.板块构造：Plate tectonics板块的划分 Plates of 板块边界的基本类型 The basic types of plate boundaries 板块的划分：Plates of岩石圈划分为六大板块：太平洋板块、欧亚板块、印度洋板块、非洲板块、 美洲板块和南极板块 Lithosphere is divided into six sections: the Pacific pl

57、ate and the Eurasian Plate and the Indian Ocean plate, the African plate, the Inter-American Plate and the Antarctic plate.其中只有太平洋板块几乎全为洋壳，其余五个板块都是既包括大陆地壳，也 包括大洋地壳。Of these, only the Pacific plate for almost all the oceanic crust, and the remaining five sections are both continental crust, including

58、 oceanic crust.随后，一些人又进一步划分出一些小板块，例如把美洲板块划分为南美洲板 块、北美洲板块、可可板块、纳兹卡板块、加勒比板块等，欧亚板块又分出菲律 宾板块、中国板块、阿拉伯板块、 伊朗板块等 Subsequently, some people are further divided into small sections, for example, the American plate is divided into sections of South America, North America plate, cocoa plate, the Nazca plate,

59、the Car ibbean plate, separation of the Eurasian Plate and the Philippine plate, the plate, Arab sections, such as Iran plate.板块边界的基本类型：The basic types of plate boundaries离散型边界Discrete border汇聚型边界Convergence of the border转换型边界Conversion of the border离散型边界：Discrete border两侧板块作垂直于边界走向的相背运动，使板块向两侧分离、散开

60、。Perpendicular to the plate on both sides of the border as running counter to the trend of the campaig n, on both sides of the plate to the separatio n of spread.其应力状态是拉张 的，地球上巨大规模的张裂构造带都发育在这种边界上 The stress is the extension of the state, the magnitude of the earth-splitting structural development in

61、 this zone are on the border.离散边界可发生在大洋岩石圈板块之间，也可发生在大陆岩石圈板块之中或 之间。 Discrete border can occur in the ocean between the lithosphere plates, may also occur in the mainland or lithosphere of the plate between. 前者为大洋裂谷带，如大西 洋中脊、东太平洋中隆；后者为大陆裂谷带，如东非裂谷等 Former ocean rift zone, such as the Atlantic ridge, th

62、e East Pacific in Long latter for the continental rift zone, such as the East African Rift Valley, and so on.汇聚型边界：Convergence of the border两侧板块彼此相向垂直于边界线运动，其应力状态是挤压的。 Opposite each other on both sides of plate boundary line perpendicular to the movement, is squeezing the stress state.沿汇聚型边界地壳发生强烈构造

63、变形伴有大量岩浆活动形 成造山带 Clustering along the border, a strong tectonic crustal deformation, with large number of magmatic activity, the formation of Orogen.汇聚型边界可进一步分为两种基本类型，一种是以俯冲作用为主；另一种则 以碰撞作用为主 Convergence of the border can be further divided into two basic types, is a subduction of the main role of a

64、collision while mainly.转换型边界：Conversion of the border转换断层构成的板块边界，两侧板块平行于边界作走滑运动，其应力状态是 剪切的。沿转换边界，岩石圈既不增生，也不消亡 Transform faults constitute the plate boundary, parallel to the plate on both sides of the border for the strike-slip movement, the stress is the shear. Conversion along the border, neither

65、the lithosphere hyperplasia, or perish.海啸：Tsunami海啸是一种具有强大破坏力的海浪。A tsunami is a strong destructive waves.这种波 浪运动引发的狂涛骇浪，汹涌澎湃，它卷起的海涛，波高可达数十米。Thismoveme nt of waves triggered by Kua ngtaohaila ng, surg ing, it rolled up the Hai-tao, Shu Shimi up high waves这种“水墙”内含极大的能量冲上陆地后所向披靡往往造成 对生命和财产的严重摧残。This water wall con tai ning the great en ergy, rushed after the land to life and property caused by the severe devastatio n.智利大海啸形成的波涛，移动了上万公里仍不减雄风，足见它的巨大威力。Chile formation of the tsunami waves, mobile on the 10,000 km of t