大学英语自学教程（下）

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1、大学英语自学教程（下）Ol-A. What Is a Decision?201-B. Secrets of Success at an Interview 402-A. Black Holes 702-B. Worlds within Worlds 903-A. Euthanasia: For and Against 1103-B. Advantage Unfair 1304-A. Slavery on Our Doorstep 1604-B. Return of The Chain Gang 1805-A. The New Music 2005-B. Different Types of C

2、omposers 2106-A. Improving Industrial Efficiency through Robotics 2306-B. Predicting Earthquakes 2507-A. Leisure and Leadership 2707-B. The Time Message 2908-A. Jet Lag: Prevention and Cure 3208-B. CoetroDing Your Concentration 3409-A. Aging in European Countries 3709-B. Childrens Self-esteem 3910-A

3、. The Campaign for Election 4210-B. The American Two-party System 4411-A. Sacrificed to Science?4611-B. Lets Stop Keeping Pets 4912-A. Let Your Mind Wander 5112-B. To Sleep, Perchance to Dream 5513-A. Work, Labor, and Play 5913-B. The Workmans Compensation 6114-A. The Teacher*s Last Shocking lesson

4、6414-B. The Seeds of Wrath 6615-A. The Computer and The Poet 6915-B. Changes to Come in U. S. Education 7101A. What Is a Decision?A decision is a choice made from among alternative courses of action that are available. The purpose of making a decision is to establish and achieve organizational goals

5、 and objectives. The reason for making a decision is that a problem exists, goals or objectives are wrong, or something is standing in the way of accomplishing them.Thus the decision-making process is fundamental to management. Almost everything a manager does involves decisions, indeed, some sugges

6、t that the management process is decision making. Although managers cannot predict the future, many of their decisions require that they consider possible future events. Often managers must make a best guess at what the future will be and try to leave as little as possible to chance, hut since uncer

7、tainty is always there, risk accompanies decisions. Sometimes the consequences of a poor decision are slight; at other times they are serious.Choice is the opportunity to select among alternatives. If there is no choice, there is no decision to be made. Decision making is the process of choosing, an

8、d many decisions have a broad range of choice. For example, a student may be able to choose among a number of different courses in order to implement the decision to obtain a college degree.For managers, every decision has constraints based on policies, procedures, laws, precedents, and the like. Th

9、ese constraints exist at all levels of the organization.Alternatives are the possible courses of action from which choices can be made. If there are no alternatives, there is no choice and, therefore, no decision. If no alternatives are seen, often it means that a thorough job of examining the probl

10、ems has not been done. For example, managers sometimes treat problems in an either/or fashion; this is their way of simplifying complex problems. But the tendency to simplify blinds them to other alternatives.At the managerial level, decision making includes limiting alternatives as well as identify

11、ing them, and the range is from highly limited to practically unlimited.Decision makers must have some way of determining which of several alternatives is best that is, which contributes the most to the achievement of organizational goals. An organizational goal is an end or a state of affairs the o

12、rganization seeks to reach. Because individuals (and organizations) frequently have different ideas about how to attain the goals, the best choice may depend on who makes the decision. Frequently, departments or units within an organization make decisions that are good for them individually but that

13、 are less than optimal for the larger organization. Called suboptimization, this is a trade-off that increases the advantages to one unit or function but decreases the advantages to another unit or function. For example, the marketing manager may argue effectively for an increased advertising budget

14、. In the larger scheme of things, however, increased funding for research to improve the products might be more beneficial to the organization.These trade-offs occur because there are many objectives that organizations wish to attain simultaneously. Some of these objectives are more important than o

15、thers, but the order and degree of importanceoften vary from person to person and from department to department. Different managers define the same problem in different terms. When presented with a common case, sales managers tend to see sales problems, production managers see production problems, a

16、nd so on.The ordering and importance of multiple objectives is also based, in part, on the values of the decision maker. Such values are personal; they are hard to understand, even by the individual, because they are so dynamic and complex. In many business situations different peoples values about

17、acceptable degrees of risk and profitability cause disagreement about the correctness of decisions.People often assume that a decision is an isolated phenomenon. But from a systems point of view, problems have multiple causes, and decisions have intended and unintended consequences. An organization

18、is an ongoing entity, and a decision made today may have consequences far into the future. Thus the skilled manager looks toward the future consequences of current decisions.01-B. Secrets of Success at an InterviewThe subject of todays talk is interviews.The key words here are preparation and confid

19、ence, which will carry you far.Do your homework first.Find out all you can about the job you are applying for and the organization you hope to work for.Many of the employers I interviewed made the same criticism of candidates.They have no idea what the day to day work of the job abUt-2-prospects or

20、of serving the community, but have never taken the trouble to find out the actual tasks they will be required to do.”Do not let this be said of you. It shows an unattractive indifference to your employer and to your job.Take the time to put yourself into the interviewers place. He wants somebody who

21、 is hard-working with a pleasant personality and a real interest in the job.Anything that you find out about the prospective employer can be used to your advantage during the interview to show that you have bothered to master some facts about the people who you hope to work for.Write down (and remem

22、ber) the questions you want to ask the interviewer(s) so that you are not speechless when they invite your questions. Make sure that holidays and pay are not the first things you ask about. If all your questions have been answered during the interview, reply:In fact, I did have several questions, bu

23、t you have already answered themDo not be afraid to ask for clarification of something that has been said during the interview if you want to be sure what was implied, but do be polite.Just before you go to the interview, look again at the original advertisement that you answered, any correspondence

24、 from your prospective employer, photocopies of your letter of application or application form and your resume.Then you will remember what you said and what they want. This is very important if you have applied for many jobs in a short time as it is easy to become confused and give an impression of

25、inefficiency.Make sure you know where and when you have to report for the interview. Go to the building (but not inside the office) a day or two before, if necessary, to find out how long the journey takes and whereexactly the place is.Aim to arrive five or ten minutes early for the actual interview

26、, then you will have a little time in hand and you will not panic if you are delayed. You start at a disadvantage if you arrive worried and ten minutes late.Dress in clean, neat, conservative clothes. Now is NOT the time to experiment with the punk look or (girls) to wear low-cut dresses with minisk

27、irts. Make sure that your shoes, hands and hair (and teeth) are clean and neat.Have the letter inviting you for an interview ready to show in case there is any difficulty in communication.You may find yourself facing one interviewer or a panel. The latter is far more intimidating, but do not let it

28、worry you too much. The interviewer will probably have a table in front of him/her. Do not put your things or arms on it.If you have a bag or a case, put it on the floor beside your chair. Do not clutch it nervously or, worse still, drop it, spilling everything.Shake hands if the interviewer offers

29、his hand first. There is little likelihood that a panel of five wants to go though the process of all shaking hands with you in turn. So you do not be upset if no one offers.Shake hands firmly a weak hand suggests a weak personality, and a crushing grip is obviously painful. Do not drop the hand as

30、soon as yours has touched it as this will seem to show you do not like the other person.Speak politely and naturally even if you are feeling shy. Think before you answer any questions.If you cannot understand, ask:Would you mind rephrasing the question, please? The question will then be repeated in

31、different words.If you are not definitely accepted or turned down on the spot, ask:When may I expect to hear the results of this interview?If you do receive a letter offering you the job, you must reply by letter (keep a photocopy) as soon as possible.Good luck!02-A. Black HolesWhat is a black hole?

32、 Well, its difficult to answer this question, since the terms we would normally use to describe a scientific phenomenon are inadequate here. Astronomers and scientists think that a black hole is a region of space (not a thing ) into which matter has fallen and from which nothing can escape ?not even

33、 light. So we cant see a black hole. A black hole exerts a strong gravitational pull and yet it has no matter. It is only space or so we think. How can this happen?The theory is that some stars explode when their density increases to a particular point; they collapse and sometimes a supernova occurs

34、. From earth, a supernova looks like a very bright light in the sky which shines even in the daytime. Supernovae were reported by astronomers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Some people think that the Star of Bethlehem could have been a supernova. The collapse of a star may produce a Wh

35、ite Dwarf or a neutron star a star, whose matter is so dense that it continually shrinks by the force of its own gravity. But if the star is very large (much bigger than our sun) this process of shrinking may be so intense that a black hole results. Imagine the earth reduced to the size of a marble,

36、 but still having the same mass and a stronger gravitational pull, and you have some idea of the force of a black hole. Any matter near the black hole is sucked in. It is impossible to say what happens inside a black hole. Scientists have called the boundary area around the hole the event horizon. W

37、e know nothingabout events which happen once objects pass this boundary. But in theory, matter must behave very differently inside the hole.For example, if a man fell into a black hole, he would think that he reached the center of it very quickly. However an observer at the event horizon would think

38、 that the man never reached the center at all. Our space and time laws dont seem to apply to objects in the area of a black hole. Einsteins relativity theory is the only one which can explain such phenomena. Einstein claimed that matter and energy are interchangeable, so that there is no absolute ti

39、me and space. There are no constants at all, and measurements of time and space depend on the position of the observer. They are relative. We do not yet fully understand the implications of the relativity theory; but it is interesting that Einsteins theory provided a basis for the idea of black hole

40、s before astronomers started to find some evidence for their existence. It is only recently that astronomers have begun specific research into black holes. In August 1977, a satellite was launched to gather data about the 10 million black holes which are thought to be in the Milky Way. And astronome

41、rs are planning a new observatory to study the individual exploding stars believed to be black holes,The most convincing evidence of black holes comes frown research into binary star systems. Binary stars, as their name suggests, are twin stars whose position in space affects each other. In some bin

42、ary systems, astronomers have shown that there is an invisible companion star, a partner to the one which we can see in the sky. Matter from the one which we can see is being pulled towards the companion star. Could this invisible star, which exerts such a great force, be a black hole? Astronomers h

43、ave evidence of a few other stars too, which might have black holes as companions.The story of black holes is just beginning. Speculations about them, are endless. There might be a massive black hole at the center of ourgalaxy swallowing up stars at a very rapid rate. Mankind may one day meet this f

44、ate. On the other hand, scientists have suggested that very advanced technology could one day make use of the energy of black holes for mankind. These speculations sound like science fiction. But the theory of black holes in space is accepted by many serious scientists and astronomers. They show us

45、a world which operates in a totally different way from our own and they question our most basic experience of space and time.02-B. Worlds within WorldsFirst of all let us consider the earth (that is to say, the world) as a planet revolving round the sun. The earth is one of nine planets which move i

46、n orbit round the sun. These nine planets, together with the sun, make up what is called our solar system. How this wonderful system started and what kept it working with such wonderful accuracy is largely a mystery but astronomers tell us that it is only one of millions of similar systems in space,

47、 and one of the smallest.The stars which we see glittering in the sky on a dark and cloudless night are almost certainly the suns of other solar systems more or less like our own, but they are so far away in space that it is unlikely that we shall ever get to know very much about them. About our own

48、 solar system, however, we are learning more every day.Before the American and Russian astronauts made their thrilling journeys into outer space it was difficult for us to realise what our earth looked like from hundreds of thousands of miles away, but the photographs which the astronauts were able

49、to take show us the earth inspace looking not very different from what the moon looks like when we look at it from the earth. The earth is, however, very different from the moon, which the American astronauts have found to be without life or vegetation, whereas our earth is very much alive in every

50、respect. The moon, by the way, is called a satellite because it goes round our earth as well as round the sun. In other words, it goes round the sun with our earth.The surface of our earth is covered by masses of land and larger areas of water. Let us consider the water areas first. The total water

51、area is about three times as large as the land area. The very large separate areas of water are called oceans and the lesser areas are called seas.In most of the oceans and seas some of the water is found to be flowing in a particular direction that is to say, from one part towards another part of t

52、he ocean or sea concerned. The water which is flowing in this manner is said to be moving as a current. There are many thousands of currents in the waters of the oceans and seas, but only certain of the stronger and better marked currents are specially named and of great importance. These currents a

53、re important because they affect the climate of the land areas close to where they flow and also because they carry large quantities of microscopic animal and vegetable life which forms a large part of the food for fishes.The nature and characteristics of the surface of the land areas of the earth v

54、ary a great deal from area to area and from place to place. The surface of some areas consists largely of high mountains and deep valleys whilst, in other areas, most of the surface consists of plains. If one made a journey over the Continents one would find every kind of surface including mountain

55、ranges, plains, plateaux, deserts, tropical forestlands and empty areas covered permanently by ice and snow.When thinking and learning about the world we should not forget that our world is the home of a very great many different people 10peoples with different coloured skins, living very different

56、lives and having very different ideas about a great many important things such as religion, government, education and social behaviour.The circumstances under which different people live make a great difference between the way in which they live and the way in which we live, and it ought to be our b

57、usiness to try to understand those different circumstances so that we can better understand people of other lands. Above all, we should avoid deciding what we think about people different from ourselves without first having learned a great deal about them and the kind of lives they have to live. It

58、is true to say that the more we learn about other people, the better we understand their ideas and, as a rule, the better we like those people themselves.03A. Euthanasia: For and AqainstWe mustnt delay any longer . swallowing is difficult . and breathing, thats also difficult. Those muscles are weak

59、ening too . we mustnt delay any longer.These were the words of Dutchman Cees van Wendel de Joode asking his doctor to help him die. Affected with a serious disease, van Wendel was no longer able to speak clearly and he knew there was no hope of recovery and that his condition was rapidly deteriorati

60、ng.Van Wendels last three months of life before being given a final, lethal injection by his doctor were filmed and first shown on television last year in the Netherlands. The programme has since been bought by 20 countries and each time it is shown, it starts a nationwide debate on the subject.The

61、Netherlands is the only country in Europe which permits euthanasia, although it is not technically legal there. However, doctors who carry out euthanasia under strict guidelines introduced by the Dutch Parliament two years ago are usually not prosecuted. The guidelines demand that the patient is exp

62、eriencing extreme suffering, that there is no chance of a cure, and that the patient has made repeated requests for euthanasia. In addition to this, a second doctor must confirm that these criteria have been met and the death must be reported to the police department.Should doctors be allowed to tak

63、e the lives of others? Dr. Wilfred van Oijen, Cees van Wendels doctor, explains how he looks at the question:Well, its not as if Im planning to murder a crowd of people with a machine gun. In that case, killing is the worst thing I can imagine. But thats entirely different from my work as a doctor.

64、I care for people and 1 try to ensure that they dont suffer too much. Thats a very different thing.”Many people, though, are totally against the practice of euthanasia. Dr. Andrew Ferguson, Chairman of the organisation Healthcare Opposed to Euthanasia, says that in the vast majority of euthanasia ca

65、ses, what the patient is actually asking for is something else. They may want a health professional to open up communication for them with their loved ones or family theres nearly always another question behind the question.MBritain also has a strong tradition of hospices special hospitals which care only for the dying and their special needs. Cicely Saunders, President of the National Hospice Council and a founder member of the hospice movement, argues that euthanasia doesnt take into account that there are ways