在与HIV接触的人群中加强HIV预防,CDC,健康资源和服务管理协会和国立卫生研究院推荐

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1、Incorporating HIV Prevention into the Medical Care of Persons Living with HIV Recommendations of CDC, the Health Resources and Services Administration, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of AmericaPlease note: An erratum has been pu

2、blished for this article. To view the erratum, please click here. The material in this report originated in the National Center for HIV, STD and TB Prevention, Harold W. Jaffe, M.D., Director; Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention Surveillance and Epidemiology, Robert S. Janssen, Director; Division of HIV

3、/AIDS Prevention Intervention, Research, and Support, Robert S. Janssen, M.D., Acting Director.Summary Reducing transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the United States requires new strategies, including emphasis on prevention of transmission by HIV-infected persons. Through ongoing a

4、ttention to prevention, risky sexual and needle-sharing behaviors among persons with HIV infection can be reduced and transmission of HIV infection prevented. Medical care providers can substantially affect HIV transmission by screening their HIV-infected patients for risk behaviors; communicating p

5、revention messages; discussing sexual and drug-use behavior; positively reinforcing changes to safer behavior; referring patients for services such as substance abuse treatment; facilitating partner notification, counseling, and testing; and identifying and treating other sexually transmitted diseas

6、es (STDs). To help incorporate HIV prevention into the medical care of HIV-infected persons, CDC, the Health Resources and Services Administration, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America developed these recommendations. The r

7、ecommendations are general and apply to incorporating HIV prevention into the medical care of all HIV-infected adolescents and adults, regardless of age, sex, or race/ethnicity. They are intended for all persons who provide medical care to HIV-infected persons (e.g., physicians, nurse practitioners,

8、 nurses, physician assistants); they might also be useful to those who deliver prevention messages (e.g., case managers, social workers, health educators). The recommendations were developed by using an evidence-based approach. For each recommendation, the strength of the recommendation, the quality

9、 of available evidence supporting the recommendation, and the outcome for which the recommendation is rated are provided. The recommendations are categorized into three major components: screening for HIV transmission risk behaviors and STDs, providing brief behavioral risk-reduction interventions i

10、n the office setting and referring selected patients for additional prevention interventions and other related services, and facilitating notification and counseling of sex and needle-sharing partners of infected persons. Introduction Despite substantial advances in the treatment of human immunodefi

11、ciency virus (HIV) infection, the estimated number of annual new HIV infections in the United States has remained at 40,000 for over 10 years (1). HIV prevention in this country has largely focused on persons who are not HIV infected, to help them avoid becoming infected. However, further reduction

12、of HIV transmission will require new strategies, including increased emphasis on preventing transmission by HIV-infected persons (2,3). HIV-infected persons who are aware of their HIV infection tend to reduce behaviors that might transmit HIV to others (4-7). Nonetheless, recent reports suggest that

13、 such behavioral changes often are not maintained and that a substantial number of HIV-infected persons continue to engage in behaviors that place others at risk for HIV infection (8-13). Reversion to risky sexual behavior might be as important in HIV transmission as failure to adopt safer sexual be

14、havior immediately after receiving a diagnosis of HIV (14). Unprotected anal sex appears to be occurring more frequently in some urban centers, particularly among young men who have sex with men (MSM) (15). Bacterial and viral sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in HIV-infected men and women receiv

15、ing outpatient care have been increasingly noted (16,17), indicating ongoing risky behaviors and opportunities for HIV transmission. Further, despite declining syphilis prevalence in the general U.S. population, sustained outbreaks of syphilis among MSM, many of whom are HIV infected, continue to oc

16、cur in some areas; rates of gonorrhea and chlamydial infection have also risen for this population (18-21). Rising STD rates among MSM indicate increased potential for HIV transmission, both because these rates suggest ongoing risky behavior and because STDs have a synergistic effect on HIV infectiv

17、ity and susceptibility (22). Studies suggest that optimism about the effectiveness of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for HIV may be contributing to relaxed attitudes toward safer sex practices and increased sexual risk-taking by some HIV-infected persons (12,23-27). Injection drug use

18、also continues to play a key role in the HIV epidemic; at least 28% of AIDS cases among adults and adolescents with known HIV risk category reported to CDC in 2000 were associated with injection drug use (28). In some large drug-using communities, HIV seroincidence and seroprevalence among injection

19、 drug users (IDUs) have declined in recent years (29,30). This decline has been attributed to several factors, including increased use of sterile injection equipment, declines in needle-sharing, shifts from injection to noninjection methods of using drugs, and cessation of drug use (31-33). However,

20、 injection-drug use among young adult heroin users has increased substantially in some areas (34,35), a reminder that, as with sexual behaviors, changes to less risky behaviors may be difficult to sustain. Clinicians providing medical care to HIV-infected persons can play a key role in helping their

21、 patients reduce risk behaviors and maintain safer practices and can do so with a feasible level of effort, even in constrained practice settings. Clinicians can greatly affect patients risks for transmission of HIV to others by performing a brief screening for HIV transmission risk behaviors; commu

22、nicating prevention messages; discussing sexual and drug-use behavior; positively reinforcing changes to safer behavior; referring patients for such services as substance abuse treatment; facilitating partner notification, counseling, and testing; and identifying and treating other STDs (36,37). The

23、se measures may also decrease patients risks of acquiring other STDs and bloodborne infections (e.g., viral hepatitis). Managed care plans can play an important role in HIV prevention by incorporating these recommendations into their practice guidelines, educating their providers and enrollees, and

24、providing condoms and educational materials. In the context of care, prevention services might be delivered in clinic or office environments or through referral to community-based programs. Some clinicians have expressed concern that reimbursement is often not provided for prevention services and no

25、te that improving reimbursement for such services might enhance the adoption and implementation of these guidelines. This report provides general recommendations for incorporating HIV prevention into the medical care of all HIV-infected adolescents and adults, regardless of age, sex, or race/ethnici

26、ty. The recommendations are intended for all persons who provide medical care to HIV-infected persons (e.g., physicians, nurse practitioners, nurses, physician assistants). They may also be useful to those who deliver prevention messages (e.g., case managers, social workers, health educators). Speci

27、al considerations may be needed for some subgroups (e.g., adolescents, for whom laws and regulations might exist governing providing of services to minors, the need to obtain parental consent, or duty to inform). However, it is beyond the scope of this report to address special considerations of sub

28、groups. Furthermore, the recommendations focus on sexual and drug-injection behaviors, since these behaviors are responsible for nearly all HIV transmission in the United States. Separate guidelines have been published for preventing perinatal transmission (38-40). These recommendations were develop

29、ed by using an evidence-based approach (Table 1). The strength of each recommendation is indicated on a scale of A (strongest recommendation for) to E (recommendation against); the quality of available evidence supporting the recommendation is indicated on a scale of I (strongest evidence for) to II

30、I (weakest evidence for), and the outcome for which the recommendation is rated is provided. The recommendations are categorized into three major components: 1) screening for HIV transmission risk behaviors and STDs, 2) providing brief behavioral risk-reduction interventions in the office setting an

31、d referring selected patients for additional prevention interventions and other related services, and 3) facilitating notification and counseling of sex and needle-sharing partners of infected persons. This report was developed by CDC, the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), the Nat

32、ional Institutes of Health (NIH), and the HIV Medicine Association (HIVMA) of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). The recommendations will evolve as results from ongoing behavioral intervention trials become available. Risk Screening Risk screening is a brief assessment of behavioral

33、and clinical factors associated with transmission of HIV and other STDs (Table 2). Risk screening can be used to identify patients who should receive more in-depth risk assessment and HIV risk-reduction counseling, other risk-reduction interventions, or referral for other services (e.g., substance a

34、buse treatment). Risk screening identifies patients at greatest risk for transmitting HIV so that prevention and referral recommendations can be focused on these patients. Screening methods include probing for behaviors associated with transmission of HIV and other STDs, eliciting patient reports of

35、 symptoms of other STDs, and laboratory testing for other STDs. Although each of these methods has limitations, a combination of methods should increase the sensitivity and effectiveness of screening. In conducting risk screening, clinicians should recognize that risk is not static. Patients lives a

36、nd circumstances change, and a patients risk of transmitting HIV may change from one medical encounter to another. Also, clinicians should recognize that working with adolescents may require special approaches and should be aware of and adhere to all laws and regulations related to providing service

37、s to minors. Screening for Behavioral Risk Factors Clinicians frequently believe that patients are uncomfortable disclosing personal risks and hesitant to respond to questions about sensitive issues, such as sexual behaviors and illicit drug use. However, available evidence suggests that patients, w

38、hen asked, will often disclose their risks (41,42) and that some patients have reported greater confidence in their clinicians ability to provide high-quality care if asked about sexual and STD history during the initial visits (43). Screening for behavioral risk factors can be done with brief self-

39、administered written questionnaires; computer-, audio-, and video-assisted questionnaires; structured face-to-face interviews; and personalized discussions (41,44-53). Screening questions can be either open-ended or closed (directed) (Box 1). Use of open-ended questions avoids simple yes or no respo

40、nses and encourages patients to discuss personal risks and the circumstances in which risks occur (15,44,54). Open-ended questions also help the clinician gather enough detail to understand potential transmission risks and make more meaningful recommendations. However, although well received by pati

41、ents, the open-ended approach may initially be difficult for clinicians schooled in directed questioning, who tend to prefer directed screening questions. Directed questions are probably useful for identifying patients with problems that should be more thoroughly discussed. Among directed approaches

42、, technical tools like computer-, audio-, and video-assisted interviews have been found to elicit more self-reported risk behaviors than did interviewer-administered questionnaires, particularly among younger patients (41,51-53,55). Studies suggest that clinicians who receive some training, particul

43、arly that including role-play and feedback concerning clinical performance, are more likely to perform effective risk screening (46-49). Sex-related behaviors important to address in risk screening include whether the patient has been engaging in sex; number and sex of partners; partners HIV serosta

44、tus (infected, not infected, or unknown); types of sexual activity (oral, vaginal, or anal sex) and whether condoms are used; and barriers to abstinence or correct condom use (e.g., difficulty talking with partners about or disclosing HIV serostatus, alcohol and other drug use before or during sex).

45、 Also, because the risk for perinatal HIV transmission is high without appropriate intervention, clinicians are advised to assess whether women of childbearing age might be pregnant, are interested in becoming pregnant, or are not specifically considering pregnancy but are sexually active and not us

46、ing reliable contraception (39,56,57). Women who are unable to become pregnant because of elective sterilization, hysterectomy, salpingo-oophorectomy, or other medical reasons might be less likely to use condoms because of a lack of concern for contraception; these women should be counseled regardin

47、g the need for use of condoms to prevent transmission of HIV. Patients who wish to conceive and whose partner is not infected also might engage in risky behavior. Patients interested in pregnancy, for themselves or their partner, should be referred to a reproductive health specialist (58). Injection

48、-drug-related behaviors important to address in screening include whether the patient has been injecting illicit drugs; whether the patient has been sharing needles and syringes or other injection equipment; how many partners the patient has shared needles with; whether needle-sharing partners are k

49、nown to be HIV infected, not infected, or of unknown HIV serostatus; whether the patient has been using new or sterilized needles and syringes; and what barriers exist to ceasing illicit drug use or, failing that, to adopting safer injection practices (e.g., lack of access to sterile needles and syr

50、inges). Approaches to Screening for Behavioral Risk Factors The most effective manner for screening for behavioral risk factors is not well defined; however, simple approaches are more acceptable to both patients and health-care providers (53). Screening tools should be designed to be as sensitive a

51、s possible for identifying behavioral risks; a more detailed, personalized assessment can then be used to improve specificity and provide additional detail. The sensitivity of screening instruments depends on obtaining accurate information. However, accuracy of information can be influenced by a var

52、iety of factors: recall, misunderstanding about risk, legal concerns, concern about confidentiality of the information and how the information will be used, concern that answers may affect ability to receive services, concern that answers may affect social desirability (i.e., the tendency to provide

53、 responses that will avoid criticism), and the desire for social approval (the tendency to seek praise) (45,55). Interviewer factors also influence the accuracy of information. Surveys indicate that patients are more likely to discuss risk behaviors if they perceive their clinicians are comfortable

54、talking about stigmatized topics such as sex and drug use (46-49) and are nonjudgmental, empathetic, knowledgeable, and comfortable counseling patients about sexual risk factors (41,46-50). These factors need to be considered when interpreting responses to screening questions. To the extent possible

55、, screening and interventions should be individualized to meet patient needs. Examples of two screening approaches are provided (Box 1). Incorporating Screening for Behavioral Risk Factors into the Office Visit Before the patient is seen by the clinician, screening for behavioral risks can be done w

56、ith a self-administered questionnaire; a computer-, audio-, or video-assisted questionnaire; or a brief interview with ancillary staff; the clinician can then review the results on the patients medical record. Alternatively, behavioral risk screening can be done during the medical encounter (e.g., a

57、s part of the history); either open-ended questions or a checklist approach with in-depth discussion about positive responses can be used (Box 1). Because, given patients immediate health needs, it can be difficult in the clinical care setting to remember less urgent matters such as risk screening a

58、nd harm reduction, provider reminder systems (e.g., computerized reminders) have been used by health-care systems to help ensure that recommended procedures are done regularly. Multicomponent health-care system interventions that include a provider reminder system and a provider education program ar

59、e effective in increasing delivery of certain prevention services (59). Risk screening might be more likely to occur in managed care settings if the managed care organization specifically calls for it (60). Screening for Clinical Risk Factors Screening for STDs Recommendations for preventive measure

60、s, including medical screening and vaccinations, that should be included in the care of HIV-infected persons (16,21,39,44,54,61-69) have been published previously. This report is not intended to duplicate existing recommendations; it addresses screening specifically to identify clinical factors asso

61、ciated with increased risk for transmission of HIV from infected to noninfected persons. In this context, STDs are the primary infections of concern for three reasons. First, the presence of STDs often suggests recent or ongoing sexual behaviors that may result in HIV transmission. Second, many STDs

62、 enhance the risk for HIV transmission or acquisition (22,70-73). Early detection and treatment of bacterial STDs might reduce the risk for HIV transmission. Third, identification and treatment of STDs can reduce the potential for spread of these infections among high-risk groups (i.e., sex or drug-

63、using networks). Screening and diagnostic testing serve distinctly different purposes. By definition, screening means testing on the basis of risk estimation, regardless of clinical indications for testing, and is a cornerstone of identifying persons at risk for transmitting HIV to others. Clinician

64、s should routinely ask about STD symptoms, including urethral or vaginal discharge; dysuria; intermenstrual bleeding; genital or anal ulcers or other lesions; anal pain, pruritus, burning, discharge, or bleeding; and, for women, lower abdominal pain with or without fever. Regardless of reported sexu

65、al behavior or other epidemiologic risk information, the presence of such symptoms should always prompt diagnostic testing and, when appropriate, treatment. However, clinical symptoms are not sensitive for identifying many infections because most STDs are asymptomatic (74-81); therefore, laboratory

66、screening of HIV-infected persons is an essential tool for identifying persons at risk for transmitting HIV and other STDs. Laboratory Testing for STDs Identification of syphilis requires direct bacteriologic (i.e., dark-field microscopy) or serologic testing. However, noninvasive, urine-based nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) have greatly simplified testing for Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamyd