实施任务型语言教学

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1、Implementing Task-Based Language Instruction实施任务型语言教学 Luo ShaoqianThe Chinese University of Hong KongBeijing Normal UniversityThree Dimensions of Language Teaching Goal(i.e.why the language is being taught)Content(i.e.what is taught)-Type A syllabuses-Type B syllabuses Methodology(i.e.how it is taug

2、ht)-accuracy-fluencyGrammar TranslationGoalContentMethodologyAbility to read literature in the L2Type A(list of grammar rules and words to be taught)Accuracy(i.e.accurate translation of L2 into L1)Audio-LingualismGoalContentMethodologyAbility to communicateType A(list of linguistic items to be taugh

3、t)Accuracy(I.e.focus on target-like use of the L2)Notional/Functional TeachingGoalContentMethodologyAbility to communicateType A(i.e.a list of notions and functionsAccuracy(i.e.focus on target-like use of the L2)Task-Based TeachingGoalContentMethodologyAbility to communicateType B(i.e.a series of me

4、ssage-focused tasks)Fluency(i.e.focus on message conveyance)Traditional-Task-based Traditional form-focus pedagogy-Teacher controls topic development-turn taking is regulated by the teacher Task-based pedagogy-students able to control topic development-speakers can self-select questions that questio

5、ner already knows the answer to little need or opportunity to negotiate meaning Scaffolding directed primarily at enabling students to produce correct sentences questions that the questioner does not know the answer to Opportunities to negotiate meaning when communication problems arise Scaffolding

6、directed primarily at enabling students to say what they want to say Form-focused feedback,i.e.the teacher responds to the correctness of students utterances The teacher repeats what a student has said for the benefit of the whole class Content-focused feedback,i.e.the teacher responds to the messag

7、e content of the students utterance A student elects to repeat something another student or teacher has said as private speech or to establish intersubjectivity First generation tasks The main aim of first generation tasks is to develop students communicative ability in a specific type of situation

8、or area of language.The task is often structured around a particular set of functions or a simple problem.(Littlewood,2004;Ribe&Vidal,1993)Second generation tasks The tasks in the second category pose challenges of a broader nature.They aim at developing not only communicative skills but also genera

9、l cognitive strategies of handling and organizing information,such as analysing what information is needed in order to complete the task,collecting information,selecting relevant data Third generation tasks With third generation tasks,the scope widens further.In addition to the communicative and cog

10、nitive strategies,they also aim to develop the personality of students through the experience of learning a foreign language.They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider educational objectives,such as enhancing motivation and awareness,developing creativity and interpersonal sk

11、ills Task Types 1.Unfocussed tasksa.Pedagogicb.Real world2.Focused tasksAn Example of a Pedagogic Task1.Four students each has one picture and describes it to the rest of the class.2.Students from the rest of the class ask the four students questions about their pictures.3.One student from the class

12、 tries to tell the story.4.If necessary Steps 2 and 3 are repeated.Some Typical Pedagogic Tasks1.Information-gap tasks(e.g.Same or Different)2.Opinion-gap tasks(e.g.Balloon debates)3.Reasoning-gap tasks4.Personal tasks5.Role-play tasksNote:Tasks can be dialogic or monologic;they can be performed ora

13、lly or in writing.A Real-World Task Look at the e-mail message below.Listen to Mr.Pointers instructions on the tape.Make notes if you want to.Then write a suitable reply to Lesieur.Dear Mr.PointerPlease send flight number,date and time of arrival and I will arrange for someone to meet you at the air

14、port.Lesieur.Role-play activities Very often in role-play situations there is no actual outcome for students to achieve,other than to enact their roles.Students have to think of suitable things to say to each other,but they are unlikely to be exchanging real meaning.Jane Willis Two Approaches to Usi

15、ng Tasks1.Use tasks to support a Type A approach.-task-supported teaching(Type A)-weak form of communicative language teaching2.Use tasks as the basis for teaching-task-based teaching(Type B)-strong form of communicative teachingA Focused TaskCan you spot the differences?BAA Focused TaskCan you spot

16、 the difference?ABA Framework for Describing Tasks1.Goal2.Input3.Conditions4.Predicted outcomes:a.Processb.ProductImplementing task-based instruction from a processing-pedagogic view point Dangers:if implemented without care,likely to create pressure for immediate communication rather than inter-lan

17、guage change and growth;may encourage learners to use excessively and prematurely lexical modes of communication.Possibility to minimize the dangers:to draw on cognitive psychology and second language acquisition research that emphasizes processing factors.Learners must be able to develop their inte

18、r-language systems in more complex ways through cycles of analysis and synthesis:revisiting areas;learning in a simple,straightforward manner;developing by relexicalizing available syntactically which need not be used on such a basis.The Methodology of Task-Based TeachingThree phases in a task-based

19、 lesson:1.Pre-task phase2.Main task phase3.Post-task phase Task 1Highlighting main ideas Task 2Planning the weekend Task 3Expressing environmental views Task 4Shopping in a supermarket Task 5Radio weather information Methodological stages in implementing tasks实施任务的方法阶段阶段目标典型技巧任务前重构（句子/思维）意识培养-语言创建准备

20、/计划-减轻认知压力任务中平衡/融合语言的任务选择准确和流利控制压力任务后 1鼓励准确性及重构公众演示分析/测试任务后 2综合/分析演练任务排序任务分类Methodological stages in implementing tasksStage Goal Typical techniquesPre-taskRestructuring Consciousness-establish target language raising-reduce cognitive loadPlanningDuring Mediate accuracy&fluency Task choicePressure m

21、anipulationPost 1Encourage accuracy&Public performancerestructuringAnalysis/TestingPost 2Cycle of synthesis&Task sequencesanalysisTask familiesPre-task workAt this stage,the task itself is the primary factor,taskcompletion is the aim that dominate.1)To set up the relevant language for a task:to deal

22、 some form of pre-teaching,can be both explicit and implicit 2)Give learners a pre-task to do and then equip them with the language they needPre-task work2to ease the processing load when learners doing a task:a range of tasks can be used to reduce 认知复杂度 1)familiarity leads to recall schematic knowl

23、edge they have;2)observe similar tasks on video or listen to or read comparable tasks;3)do related tasks to activate schema4)engage in pre-task planning:language to use,meanings to express.So they can devote more attention to how to carry out thetask and produce more accurate,complex,and fluent lang

24、uage.The Pre-task PhaseThree purposes:-to serve to introduce new language that learners can use while performing the task;-to mobilize existing linguistic resources;-to ease processing load,and to push learners to interpret tasks in more demanding waysSome options:Allow the students time to plan.1.P

25、rovide a model2.Do a similar task3.Pre-teach key linguistic itemsThe Pre-task Phase On general cognitive demands of the task 对任务要求的总体感知对任务要求的总体感知 An emphasis on linguistic factors 关注语言因素关注语言因素 Supporting learners in performing a task similar to the task they will perform in the during-task phase of

26、the lesson 让学生做一些在后面完成任务时需要的准备工作让学生做一些在后面完成任务时需要的准备工作 Non-task preparation activities-brain storming 大脑风暴大脑风暴-mind map 思维图思维图 The Pre-task Phase Addressing linguistic demands of a task-predicting,i.e.asking learners to brainstorm a list of words related to the task title or topic Providing a model 提

27、供一个示范提供一个示范 Asking students to observe a model of how to perform the task 让学生观察完成任务的模式让学生观察完成任务的模式 Performing a similar task 完成一些简单的任务完成一些简单的任务-simply observing others perform a task can help reduce the cognitive load on the learner (Skehan,1996)这个阶段阶段是以学习者为中心及任务型学习模式的有关理论为指导，在Pre-task phasePre-task

28、 phase这一环节的教学安排时，考虑为学生的学习创设良好的学习环境，使学生成为主动学习者。在呈现新的内容时，将构成任务内容的新的语言材料的音、意和语言使用环境同时输入给学生。The During-Task PhaseSome options:1.Participatory structure 参与方式参与方式:Whole-class vs.small group work;individual or interaction 2.Set a time for completing the task.3.Vary the number of participants.4.Introduce a

29、surprise element.5.Tell students they will have to present a report to the whole class.pair and group work are seen as central to task-based teaching;not all tasks are interactive（二）新语言材料的操练（二）新语言材料的操练（during-task phase）the main task phasethe main task phase是指语言技能的习得过程。研究内容：探讨了如何使语言技能的训练能够吸引学生积极、主动的

30、参与，如何使语言知识的积累、语意功能的训练与主题结合。During the taskAt this stage,learners are reminded that fluency is not theonly goal during task completion,and that restructuringand accuracy also have importanceTask choice:the appropriate difficulty level.1too difficult:excessive mental processing to communicate any sort

31、 of meaning:ellipsis,context,strategies and lexicalization which reduce the pedagogic value of a task-based approach.2too easy:boring,no serious engagement no gain in terms of stretching interlanguage or automaticity development(Swain,1985)During the taskSyllabus:implementation decisions 1to alter t

32、he task difficulty2manipulate the way in which attention is directed-accuracy to be stressed?-specific structures to be used3to make a task less difficult:visual support,such as a diagram 4to make a task more difficult:surprise elements which learners dont expect,e.g.additional evidence in a“judge”t

33、ask.5The communicative stress factors:time,modality,participants/relationships,importance of the task,participants control over the task.The Post-Task PhaseThree major pedagogical goals:-提供再做任务的机会提供再做任务的机会（to provide an opportunity for a repeat performance of the task）-反思任务是怎样完成的反思任务是怎样完成的 （to encou

34、rage reflection on how the task was performed）-关注语言的形式关注语言的形式 （to encourage attention to form）Post-task activitiesPost 11performance:the knowledge while the task is being done may have to be re-done publicly this leads to learners attention to the goals of restructuring and accuracy.2analysis:the co

35、ncern with syntax and analysis is infiltrated into the task work without the heavy-handedness of the teacher intervention and error correction.Repeat performance Carry out second performance publicly（全班，当众）Complexity increases 复杂度提高了Express more clearly 表达更清楚了Become more fluent 语言更流利了Post-task activ

36、itiesPost 21examine task sequences,task progression,and how sets of tasks relate to one another:1)to repeat tasks so learners are more effective with the analysis and synthesis2)parallel tasks:tasks are similar but with new elements so to engage the learner interest.2task families:groups of tasks re

37、semble one another and have similar language or cognitive demands(Candlin,1987)so learners are clearer of the goals of such task groups and teachers and learners share views about task requirements.The post-task phase的四种主要活动的四种主要活动 Reviewing of learner errors反思错误 Consciousness-raising tasks语法意识 Prod

38、uction-practice activities操练活动 Noticing activities 注意语言的准确Reviewing of learner errors Teacher moves from group to group to listen and note down the errors Address these errors with the whole class-can be written on the board-students can be invited to correct it-listen again and edit their own perfo

39、rmance-teacher comments on Consciousness-raising tasks There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused attention 就某一语法现象单独讲解就某一语法现象单独讲解 The learners are provided with data that illustrate the targeted feature or an explicit rule describing or explaining the feature 给例子说明语法用法

40、或对语法详细描述给例子说明语法用法或对语法详细描述 The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted features 通过思考理解语法用法通过思考理解语法用法 Learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule describing the grammatical structure 可以是学生口头表达可以是学生口头表达 To direct students to attend explicitly to a spe

41、cific form they used incorrectly or failed to use at all in the main task 补充不足补充不足 Production-practice activities Repetition 重复活动 Substitution 替换练习 Gapped sentences 填空练习 Jumbled sentences 打乱的句子 Transformation drills 变换句型 Dialogues 对话Noticing activities Focusing on linguistic form Dictation Editing W

42、riting and teacher commentsReflecting on the task Present a report on how they did the task and what they decided or discovered oral or written Summary the outcome of the task Reflect or evaluate of their own performance(fluency,complicity or accuracy)Metacognitive strategies 元认知策略元认知策略(planning,mon

43、itoring and evaluating)在Post-task activity环节中，安排的语言输出活动，应该有以下几个特点：1、贴近生活的语言使用环境(life-like situations)；2、交谈的双方之间有信息差(information gap)；3、解决实际问题(problem solving)；4、发挥学生的自主性(active)或创造性(creative)。（一）（一）“任务型学习模式任务型学习模式”的框架的框架Task Circle Pre-task preparation While-task procedure Post-task activityMechanic

44、al practiceMeaningful practiceThe Foods I Eat(for students)Task 1:Having a picnic Situation:Some children are going to have a picnic.What food are they going to have?Can you give them some ideas?What food do you usually have?Name some of your favourite ones.Subtask1:What food do they want for the pi

45、cnic?Instruction:Now the children are deciding what they want.Look at the picture carefully and find out the answer by filling in the blanks.Subtask2:buying food at the food shop Instructions:Lily and Mary are at the supermarket.They are buying food for the picnic.Please listen to their conversation

46、 carefully.Fill in the chart.Subtask3:eating at the picnic Instructions:Now the children are at the picnic.They have lots of food.Read the conversation between Coco and Sam.Complete the one between Helen and Tim.The Foods I Eat(for teachers)Task 1.Having a picnic Aims of the task:1.to identify kinds

47、 of foods2.to express likes or dislikes3.to understand the communicative language at the food shopSubtask2:buying food at the food shop Task requirements:Communicative language at a shop.Listening skill General:To ask and answer questions about buying and selling at shops Specific:To assess students

48、 ability to:-make a conversation at a shop.-get information from a conversation.-sum up the main idea of the conversation.-write money in numbers.WHOS WHO IN THE FAMILY Family members,BE,Who/whose Structure/Vocabulary:Family members,BE,Who/whose Functions:Talking about families Materials:(1)Cards wi

49、th description of a new family(1per-student)(2)Find Someone Who.Sheet(3)Model Paragraph PRE ACTIVITY Skills:Speaking and listening Organization:Whole class Procedures:Class asks teacher about his/her family(real)or imaginary.ACTIVITY Skills:Speaking,listening,writing.Organization:Mixer Procedures:(l

50、)Give out cards(one per student):explain that this is their new family.(2)Explain any vocabulary or pronunciation problems.(3)Give out Find Who.?”sheet and explain how it works.Students will answer with information from their new families.(4)Done as a mixer.The first student to fill out the sheet co

51、rrectly wins.POST ACTIVITY Skills:Writing,(speaking,listening)Organization:Individual/pairs.Procedures:(1)Go over model paragraph.(2)Individually,students write similar paragraphs about their new families.(3)Then,put students into pairs and they correct each others paragraphs.(The paragraphs can lat

52、er be collected and corrected by the teacher.)Father:Hugh,taxi river,35 Mother:Marilyn,actress,30 You:student,10 Father:Edward,politician,35 Mother:Mildred,deceased You:university student,20 Father:John,retired,99*Mother:Henrietta,retired,98 You:retired,75 FIND SOMEONE WHOSE-.mother is deceased.moth

53、er is an actress.father is a taxi driver.father is a taxi driver.FIND SOMEONE WHO-is a student.is retired.is 20.Model Paragraph My Family My name Is Olivia.Im 10 and Im a student.My fathers name is Joseph.Hes a scientist.Hes 44.My mother s name is Joan.She is a teacher.Shes 42.I have no brothers or

54、sisters.MY FAMILY Focusing on forms 学习语法学习语法 direct focus on grammar-focus on the features of the forms讲解重点语法-address errors 纠正语言错误-address gaps in the students knowledge 补充语言知识不足Focussing on FormOpportunities to focus on form arise in task-based teaching:Definition:Focus on form overtly draws stude

55、nts attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overrriding focus is on meaning or communication.(Long 1991)cf.Focus on formsThree Types of Focus on Form1.Reactive focus on form(error correction)2.Teacher-initiated focus on form3.Student-initiated focus on formReacti

56、ve Focus on Form:An ExampleT:What were you doing?S:I was in pub (2)S:I was in pubT:In the pub?S:Yeh and I was drinking beer with my friend.Dual FocusLearner 1:And what did you do last weekend?Learner 2:I tried to find a pub where you dont see where you dont see many tourists.And I find oneTeacher:Fo

57、und.Learner 2:I found one where I spoke with two English women and we spoke about life in Canterbury or things and after I came backTeacher:Afterwards Combinations of skills listening with speaking and writing reading with speaking and writing sometimes all four skillsProblems and Solutions ProblemS

58、olution1.Students lack proficiency to communicate in the L2Devise activities that develop ability to communicate gradually.2.Students unwilling to speak English in class.Use small group work;allow planning time;learner training3.Students develop pidginized language systemSelect tasks that demand ful

59、ly grammaticalized languageProblems with the Educational System and SolutionsProblemsSolutions1.Emphasis on knowledge learningReview philosophy of education.2.Examination system Develop new more communicative exams3.Large classesUse small group work;develop tasks suited to large classes.Conclusions1

60、.Task-based teaching offers the opportunity for natural learning inside the classroom.2.It emphasizes meaning over form but can also cater for learning form.3.It is intrinsically motivating.4.It is compatible with a learner-centred educational philosophy.5.It can be used alongside a more traditional

61、 approach.References Candlin,C.(1987).Towards task-based language learning.In C.Candlin and D.Murphy(eds).Language Learning Tasks.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall.Crookes,G.(1989).Planning and interlanguage variation.Studies in Second Language Acquisition.11 367-383.Foster,P.and Skehan,P.(1994).The

62、 influence of planning on performance in task-based learning.Paper presented at the British Association of Applied Linguistics,Leeds.Prabhu,N.S.(1987).Second Language Pedagogy.Oxford:OUP.Skehan,P.and Foster,P.The influence of planning and post-task activities on accuracy in task-based learning.Thame

63、s Valley University Working Papers in Englsih Language Teaching,Vol.3Swain,M.(1985).Communicative competence:Some roles of comprehensible output in its development.In S.Gass and C.Madden(eds).Input in Second Language Acquisition.Rowley,MA:Newbury House.Willis,D.and Willis,J.(1988).COBUILD Book 1.London:Collins.Reference Rod Ellis Task-Based Language TeachingUniversity of Auckland龚亚夫 罗少茜 任务型语言教学 人民教育出版社龚亚夫 罗少茜 任务型评价 人民教育出版社施嘉平 任务型学习模式在英语教学中的运用 对小学低年级英语“主题式教学”的实践研究 上海市徐汇区教育学院