曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理

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1、1Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put in place. The texts example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lo

2、t, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knives in steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketpl

3、ace do?The invisible hand of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting in their own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.2Q1How is economics like a science?Economics is like a science because ec

4、onomists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to run controlled experim

5、ents. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea of “efficiency”?The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production poss

6、ibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A in Figure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good.Q7What is the difference between a positive and a norm

7、ative statement? Give an example of that.Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptive and make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example. Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. No

8、rmative: The government should keep the growth rate of money low.3Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative op

9、portunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm, or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they cant have a comparative advantage in every good.Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.A nation will export goods for which it has a co

10、mparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producing those goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilities frontiers.4Q5Propeyes income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinac

11、h an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeyes demand curve for spinach?Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him. Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the d

12、ecrease in his income.Q8 Dose a change in producers technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve? A change in producers technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to

13、 a movement along the supply curve.Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium.The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to

14、 sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below the equilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can

15、 raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.Q11 Describe the role of prices in market economies.Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quant

16、ity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.5Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elas

17、ticity of demand discussed in the chapter.The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessitie

18、s, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue recei

19、ved by producers.Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.Figure 16Q2W

20、hich causes a shortage of a gooda price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold

21、?A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why? The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supp

22、ly. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears more of the burden of the tax.7Q1Explain how buyer

23、s willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are related. Buyers willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and

24、 above the price, which equals each buyers willingness to pay less the price of the good.Q2 Explain how sellers costs, producers surplus, and the supply curve are related.Sellers costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the cost

25、s of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price minus each sellers costs.Figure 413Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignore the cost?An accountant would not c

26、ount the owners opportunity cost of alternative employment as an accounting cost. An example is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer. Because shes working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour

27、 as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant to Helens decision to run the cookie factory.Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing?Marginal product is the increase in output that arises f

28、rom an additional unit of input. Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomies of scale and explain why then might arise.Economies of scale exi

29、st when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a lar

30、ge organization.14Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm chooses the level of output that maximizes profit. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price (such as P*), the level of output that maximizes profit is the output where mar

31、ginal cost equals price (Q*), as long as price is greater than average variable cost at that point (in the short run), or greater than average total cost (in the long run).Figure 2Q6 Does a firms price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain.The firms price equals the

32、 minimum of average total cost only in the long run. In the short run, price may be greater than average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which case the firm is making losses. But the situation is different in the long run. If fir

33、ms are making profits, other firms will enter the industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raise the price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, price equals

34、average total cost.15Q3Why is monopolists marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain. A monopolists marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because: (1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, t

35、he monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) This cut in prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.A monopolists marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firm must reduce its price on all uni

36、ts of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline in price decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve is inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative.Q4 Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and mar

37、ginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. The intersection of the marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing l

38、evel of output, Qm. The demand curve then shows the profit-maximizing price, Pm.Figure 116Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like a monopolist. They would set q

39、uantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve.Q5What is the prisoners dilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly?The prisoners dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult f

40、or opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make them all better off. Each person or firm has a great incentive to cheat on any cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.17Q2 Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price

41、related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causin

42、g the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price (P2) equals average total cost (ATC), so profits are now zero.Figure 223Q1 Explain why an economys income must equal its expenditure.An economys incom

43、e must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller. Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.24Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.The three problems in the consumer price index as a

44、measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods, which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.25Q2List and describe four determ

45、inants of productivity.The four determinants of productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and expe

46、rience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which is societys understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services.Questions are chosen from problems and applications.Chapter 1: Q9 By specializing in each task,

47、 you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than it would take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.Similarly, co

48、untries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clo

49、thes and French workers produce all the wine, and they exchange some wine for some clothes.Chapter 2: Q2 a.Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter. It is bowed out because when most of the economys resources are being used to produce butter, the frontier is steep a

50、nd when most of the economys resources are being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat. When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase in the production of but

51、ter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given up yields a small increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilitie

52、s frontier is steep.b.Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside the production possibilities frontier. Point B is feasible but inefficient because its inside the production possibilities frontier.Figure 6c.The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butte

53、r. The Doves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d.If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get a bigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a

54、result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D.Chapter 3: Q4a.Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15 bu

55、shels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1/15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of each other.b.See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the production p

56、ossibilities frontier. If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier. Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities front

57、ier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production. That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushels per worker). This is shown as point A on

58、Figure 4.c.If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canada will need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels

59、 of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets the same number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 4 Chapter 4: Q1a.Cold weather damages t

60、he orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This can be seen in Figure 6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.b.People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribb

61、ean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the wi

62、nter, as the figure shows. Figure 6a Figure 7bc.When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Since much oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in the equil

63、ibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will not find Cadillacs as attractive. In addition, some people who a

64、lready own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs. Figure 8c Figure 9cChapter 5: Q2a.For business

65、travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is (2,000 - 1,900)/1,950/(250 - 200)/225 = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is (800 - 600)/700 / (250 - 200)/225 = 0.29/0.22 = 1.32.b.The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for bu