团队与小组管理(ppt 页)(英文)

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1、Chapter 9 Work Team&GroupsStrategies forSuccessful TeamsGroups&TeamsGroup-two or more people with common interests or objectivesTeam-a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common mission,performance goals,and approach for which they hold themselves mutually account

2、ableCharacteristics of a Well-Functioning,Effective GroupRelaxed,comfortable,informal atmosphereTask well understood&acceptedConsensus decision makingPeople express feelings&ideasConflict&disagreement center around ideas or methodsClear assignments made&acceptedMembers listen well&participateGroup a

3、ware of its operation&functionGroup BehaviorNorms of behavior-the standards that a work group uses to evaluate the behavior of its membersGroup cohesion-the“interpersonal glue”that makes members of a group stick togetherSocial loafing-the failure of a group member to contribute personal time,effort,

4、thoughts,or other resources to the groupLoss of individuality-a social process in which individual group members lose self-awareness&its accompanying sense of accountability,inhibition,and responsibility for individual behaviorGroup FormationFormal groups-official or assigned groups gathered to perf

5、orm various tasksneed ethnic,gender,cultural,and interpersonal diversityneed professional and geographical diversityInformal groups-unofficial or emergent groups that evolve in the work setting to gratify a variety of member needs not met by formal groupsStages of Group FormationMutual acceptanceFoc

6、us is on the interpersonal relations among the membersDecision makingFocus is on decision making activities related to tasksMotivation&commitmentFocus on self-and group-motivation,execution,achievementControl&sanctionsFocus on effective,efficient unitJoining GroupsSecurityStatusSelf-EsteemAffiliatio

7、nPowerGoal AchievementPrestage 1Stage IFormingStage IIStormingStage IIINormingStage IVPerformingStage VAdjourningStages of Group DevelopmentGroup Behavior ModelExternal Conditions Imposed on the GroupGroup Member ResourcesGroup StructureGroup ProcessGroup TaskPerformance and SatisfactionExternal Con

8、ditions Imposed on the GroupOrganizational StrategyAuthority StructuresFormal RegulationsOrganizational ResourcesPersonnel Selections ProcessOrganizational CulturePhysical Work SettingGroup LeadersDepartment ManagerSupervisorsForemanProject LeadersTask Force HeadChairpersonChief Executive Officer(CE

9、O)Group RolesDefinition:Set of expected behavior pattern,attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unitRole IdentityRole PerceptionRole ExpectationsRole ConflictTypes of TeamsProblem solving-quality circleSelf-managed work teams-may result in reduction of managerial positionsCross

10、-functional-same level but different work areas?Cross-functionalProblem-SolvingSelf-managedTypes of TeamsWork GroupsWork TeamsShare InformationNeutral(sometimes Negative)IndividualRandom&VariedCollective PerformancePositiveIndividual&MutualComplementaryGoalSynergyAccountabilitySkillsComparing Work G

11、roups and Work TeamsGroups Pass Through Task-Oriented and Relationship-Oriented Stages.Some Groups Get Stuck at Certain Stages and Become DysfunctionalOrientationto TaskTesting andDependenceIntragroupConflictEmotional Responseto the Demandsof the TaskOpen Exchangeof RelevantInformationEmergence of a

12、 SolutionDevelopment ofGroup CohesionFunctional RolesEmergeDissolutionof GroupSTAGE 1Orientation(Forming)STAGE 5Termination(Adjourning)STAGE 2Redefinition(Storming)STAGE 3Coordination(Norming)STAGE 4Formalization(Performing)Groups Change Their Ways of Working at Midstream,Focusing More Clearly on Th

13、eir Goal and Becoming More EffectivePROJECTSTARTSTRANSITIONPROJECTDEADLINEPerformOriginalBehaviorsDropOldBehaviors PerformNew,More Effective Behaviors0%50%100%TIME EXPENDEDManagers Should Consider Six Factors in Choosing Group or Individual Decision MakingFactorGroupIndividualType of problem or task

14、Acceptance of decisionQuality of the solutionCharacteristics of individualsWhen diverse knowledgeand skills are requiredWhen acceptance by groupmembers is valuedWhen the input of severalgroup members can im-prove the solutionWhen group membershave experienced workingtogetherWhen efficiency is desire

15、dWhen acceptance is notimportantWhen a“best member”can be identifiedWhen individuals cannotcollaborateManagers Should Consider Six Factors in Choosing Group or Individual Decision Making(Cont.)FactorGroupIndividualOrganizational cultureAmount of time availableWhen the culture supportsgroup problem s

16、olvingWhen relatively more time is availableWhen culture is competitiveWhen relatively little timeis availableTable 6-1bCohesiveness&ProductivityHighly cohesive groups are generally more productiveCohesiveness reduces tension and provides a supportive environmentGroup norms play an important role in

17、 cohesivenessSetting StandardsMissionValuesLogistical ArrangementsDecision MakingConflictGroup members help to develop,follow,and enforce the rules,policies,and procedures of the group.Such rules may range from simple ones,like beginning on time,to more complex policies,such as procedures to arrive

18、at consensus.Group CohesivenessTime Spent TogetherSeverity of InitiationGroup SizeExternal ThreatsPrevious SuccessesGroupthinkIrving Janis ModelAntecedent Conditions+Cohesiveness Groupthink SymptomsGroupthink Symptoms Low Probability of SuccessGroupthink CharacteristicsPowerful Social PressuresConcu

19、rrence SeekingDehumanizing SolutionsSuppression of Deviant ThoughtsStressManagers Should Avoid Groupthink in Making Decisions With GroupsSymptomDescriptionInvulnerabilityRationalizationMoralityStereotypingPressureMembers feel they are safe and protected from dangers,ostracism,or ineffective action.M

20、embers ignore warnings by rationalizing their own orothers behavior.Members believe their actions are inherently moral and ethical.Members view opponents as truly evil or stupid and thus unworthy of or incompetent at negotiations around differences in beliefs or positions.Members pressure all indivi

21、duals in the group to conform to the groups decision;they allow no questioning or arguing of alternatives.Managers Should Avoid Groupthink in Making Decisions With Groups(Cont.)SymptomDescriptionSelf-censorshipUnanimity“Mindguarding”Members do not question the groups decision.Members perceive that e

22、veryone in the group has the sameview.Members may keep adverse information from other members that might ruin their perceptions of consensus and the effectivedecision.Table 6-2bMajor Changes in Leadership Occur as Teams Become Self-DirectedSTAGE 1STAGE 2STAGE 3STAGE 4STAGE 5Start-UpSate of Confusion

23、Leader-Centered TeamsTightly Formed TeamsSelf-Directed TeamsMangers Can Use Three Points of Leverage to Enhance Group Task PerformancePoints of LeverageProcess Criteriaof EffectivenessGroup StructureOrganizationalContextCoaching andConsultationAmple effortSufficient knowl-edge and skillMotivational

24、struc-ture of group taskGroup compositionOrganizationalreward systemOrganizationaleducation systemRemedying coor-dination problemsand building groupcommitmentRemedying inap-propriate“weight-ing”of memberinputs and foster-ing cross-trainingMangers Can Use Three Points of Leverage to Enhance Group Tas

25、k Performance(Cont.)Points of LeverageProcess Criteriaof EffectivenessGroup StructureOrganizationalContextCoaching andConsultationTask-appropriateperformancestrategiesGroup norms thatregulate member behavior and fosterscanning and plan-ningOrganizationalinformation systemRemedying imple-mentation pr

26、ob-lems and fosteringcreativity in strat-egy deploymentTable 6-3bDiverse Teams Offer Both Advantages and Disadvantages in the WorkplaceAdvantagesDisadvantagesIncreased number of perspectivesMultiple interpretations likelyGreater openness to new ideasIncreased flexibilityIncreased creativityImproved

27、problem solvingImproved understanding of foreign employees or customersIncreased ambiguityIncreased complexityIncreased confusionIncreased mistrustPotential miscommunicationDifficulty in reaching agreementsDifficulty in reconciling diverse perspectivesDifficulty in reaching consensusDecreased group

28、cohesionTable 6-4Differences that Influence Perceptions,Which,in Turn,Influence Intergoup RelationsATTITUDINAL SETSCompetitiveCooperativeSTATUSDIFFERENCESPERCEPTIONSINTERGROUPRELATIONSORIENTATIONGoalsTimeSocialRelations of Tasks&ConflictINDEPENDENCEDEPENDENCEINTERDEPENDENCETASKBTASKBTASKBTASKATASKAT

29、ASKAMangers Should Beware of These Types of Negotiators,Who Deliberately Choose a Style That Uses These Particular Tactics TypeMethodThe aggressive-openernegotiatorThe long-pausenegotiatorThe mocking negotiatorDiscomfort the other side by making cutting remarks about their previous performance,their

30、 numbers,theirunreasonableness,or anything that can be used to insinuate that the opposition is hardly worthspeaking to.Listen to the other side but do not answer their prop-ositions immediately but rather appear to give them considerable thought with the result that long silences ensue for the purp

31、ose of getting the other to revealas much of their case as possible without revealingyour own.Mock and sneer at your oppositions proposals to get the other side so“uptight”that they say something thatthey will regret later.(Cont.)TypeMethodThe interrogatorThe cloak-of-reason-ableness negotiatorThe d

32、ivide-and-conquernegotiatorMeet all proposals with searching,prodding questionsthat are couched in such a way that the oppositionfeels that they have not thoroughly done their home-work.Challenge any answers in a confronting manner and ask the opposition to explain further what they mean.Appear to b

33、e agreeable and helpful while making impossible demands for the purpose of winning the friendship and confidence of the opposition.Produce dissension among the opposition so that theyhave to pay more attention to their own internal dis-agreements rather than the disagreements with your side.Ally wit

34、h one member of the team and try to play him or her off against the other members of the team.(Cont.)TypeMethodThe Billy BunternegotiatorPretend to be particularly dense and,by so doing,exasperate the opposition in hops that at least onemember of the opposing team will reveal information as he tries

35、 to find increasingly simple ways to describeproposals,with each proposal being elaborated andamplified so that Billy Bunter can understand it.Four Categories of RolesGroup Task Roles:roles which facilitate the selection and definition of a common problem and solution.Group Building and Maintenance:

36、roles which increase the functioning of the group as a group.Individual Roles:roles which are oriented toward the satisfaction of individuals needs.Creative Roles:roles which involve using creativity to identify possible solutions.Group Task RolesThe Initiator-ContributorSuggests or proposes new ide

37、as may include the suggestion:for a new group a new way to view a problem a new way to address a problem within the group a new procedure for the group a new way to organize the groupThe Information SeekerSeeks clarification of suggestions made in terms of their factual adequacy,for authoritative in

38、formation and facets pertinent to the problem being discussed.The Opinion Seeker Asks not primarily for the facts of the case but for a clarification of the values pertinent to what the group is undertaking or of values involved in a suggestion made or in alternative suggestions.The Information Give

39、rOffers facts or generalizations which are “authoritative”or relates his own experience pertinently to the group problem.The Opinion GiverStates his/her belief or opinion pertinently to a suggestion made or to alternative suggestions.The emphasis is on his/her proposal of what should become the grou

40、ps view of pertinent values,not primarily upon relevant facts or information.The CoordinatorShows or clarifies the relationships among various ideas and suggestions Tries to pull ideas and suggestions together Tries to coordinate the activities of various membersThe Evaluator-CriticSubjects the acco

41、mplishments of the group to some standard or set of standards of group functioning in the context of the group task.My evaluate the“practicality”,“logic”,“Facts”,or“procedures”The EnergizerProds the group to action or decision.Attempts to stimulate or arouse the group to greater or higher quality wo

42、rk.The RecorderWrites down suggestions.Makes a record of group decisions(may be down via memory).The recorder role is the“group memory.”Group Building and Maintenance RolesThe EncouragerPraises,agrees with and accepts the contributions of others.Indicates warmth,solidarity in attitude toward others.

43、Offers commendation and praise in various ways and indicates acceptance of others,The HarmonizerMediates the differences between members Attempts to reconcile disagreements.Relieves tension in conflict situations.The CompromiserOperates from within a conflict in which his/her ideas or position is in

44、volved.May offer compromise by yielding status,admitting error,or by coming“halfway”in meeting another.The Gate-Keeper&ExpediterAttempts to keep communication open by facilitating participation of others.Proposes regulation of the flow of communication.The FollowerGoes along with the movement of the

45、 group.Passively accepts the ideas of others.Serves as an audience for others in the group as well as for group discussion and decision.Attempts by individuals to satisfy personal needs.Numerous types-from Sociology and Psychology.Individual RolesThe MonopolistDef:One who chatters on incessantly due

46、 to anxiety when silent.Effect:Group gets concerned,then frustrated and angry.May be afraid to confront because then they must fill the void.Help-Rejecting ComplainerDef.:requests help than rejects;takes problem in insolvability of problems;blames authority,conflicted about dependency feeling helple

47、ss and distrusting.Effects:seen as greedy and user of group energy;members become bored,confused,irritated and frustrated.Self-Righteous MoralistDef.:strong need to be right.Demonstrates superiority via poise and unconcerned about being liked.Deep underlying shame.Effect:mobilizes so much resentment

48、 that may be forced out of the group.Creative Group RolesIdea GeneratorLook for new ways to do things.Tend to focus only on ideas and concepts.Are result driven.DesignersSee the big picture.Provide guidance and tools.Define performance standards.Identify resources needed to complete projects.Promote

49、rsVisualize end result.Optimistic.Promote ideas and give momentum.Managers Can Use This Checklist to Diagnose the Roles Played by Each Team MemberTASK ORIENTEDMAINTENANCEINDIVIDUALAgenda SetterAnalyzerCoordinatorEvaluatorInformation GiverInformation SeekerIntuitorOtherEncouragerFollowerGatekeeperGro

50、up ObserverHarmonizerStandard SetterOtherAvoiderBlockerClownDominatorRecognition SeekerOtherGroup NormsAcceptable standards of behavior,that are shared by the groups members.Formal Normsexplicitly statedInformal Normshabit becomes normCommon Classes of NormsPerformance related processesAppearance fa

51、ctorsInformal social arrangementsAllocation of resourcesBehaviors can become NormsCritical events in groups historyPrimacyCarry-over from past situationsExplicit statements made by a groups memberReasons a behavior might become a“norm”To facilitate the groups survival.If it increases the predictabil

52、ity of group members behaviors.To reduce embarrassing interpersonal problems for group members.To allow members to express central values of the group.To clarify what is distinctive about the groups identity.StatusSocially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others“In the st

53、atus hierarchy of life,nothing doesnt matter.”Examples:titles,relationships,pay&benefits,work schedules,office amenitiesGroup SizeGroups with an odd number tend to perform betterGroups of 5-7 seem to be a“happy medium”Smaller groupsfasterLarger groupsbetter decisions“social loafing”Eliminating Socia

54、l LoafingMake each performer identifiable.Public PostingInteresting WorkRewards for ContributionsPunishment ThreatsSatisfaction is HigherSmall groupsUniform status and norms among group membersUse higher level skillsMeaningful workSignificant effect of outcomesPositive feedbackWhen groups experience

55、 substantial autonomyPositive BehaviorsMaking“I”statements such as“I feel,”“I think,”“I need.”Actively listening to promote two-way communication.Respecting others needs,feelings,and rights by allowing others to disagree.Sharing information and expertise openly.Negative BehaviorsUnwillingness to set

56、 aside personal agendas.Aggressively using“always”or“never”to intimidate others.Displaying a negative attitude.Judging others.Wanting to be a star rather than part of the process.Mature Group CharacteristicsPurpose and MissionMay be assigned or may emerge from the groupGroup often questions,reexamin

57、es,&modifies mission&purposeMission converted into specific agenda,clear goals,&a set of critical success factorsMature Group CharacteristicsBehavioral Norms-well-understood standards of behavior within a groupFormal&writtenGround rulesfor meetingsInformal but understoodIntra-group socializingDress

58、codesMature Group CharacteristicsGroup cohesion-interpersonal attraction binding group members togetherEnables groups to exercise effective control over the membersGroups with high cohesiveness demonstrate lower tension&anxietydemonstrate less variation in productivitydemonstrate better member satis

59、faction,commitment&communicationCohesiveness&Work-Related Tension3.23.33.43.53.63.73.83.941234567Mean tensionGroup Cohesiveness from low to high7 16 52 65 57 19 12Number of groups“Does your work ever make you jumpy or nervous?”From S.E.Seashore,Group Cohesiveness in the Industrial Work Force,1954.Re

60、search conducted by Stanley E.Seashore at the Institute for Social Research,University of Michigan.Reprinted by permission.Mature Group CharacteristicsStatus structure-the set of authority&task relations among a groups membersHierarchical or egalitarianOften leadership is sharedDiversity stylesContr

61、ibutorCollaboratorCommunicatorChallengerData/InfoMissionFacilitatorDevils advocateGood when performing complicated,complex,inter-related and/or more voluminous work than one person can handleGood when knowledge,talent,skills,&abilities are dispersed across organizational membersEmpowerment&collabora

62、tion;not power&competitionWhy Teams?Quality Circles&TeamsQuality circles(QC)-a small group of employees who work voluntarily on company time,typically one hour per week,to address work-related problemsQCs deal with substantive issuesDo not require final decision authorityQCs need periodic reenergizi

63、ngQuality team-a team that is part of an organizations structure&is empowered to act on its decisions regarding product&quality serviceSocial Benefits of TeamsPsychological intimacy-emotional&psychological closeness to other team or group membersIntegrated intimacy-closeness achieved through tasks&a

64、ctivitiesTeam Task FunctionsTask functions-those activities directly related to the effective completion of the teams workInitiate activitiesDiagnose problemsCoordinate activitiesElaborate conceptsSummarize ideasEvaluate effectivenessGive informationTest ideasSeek informationTeam Maintenance Functio

65、nsMaintenance functions-those activities essential to the effective,satisfying interpersonal relationships within a team or groupSupport othersHarmonize conflictTest group decisionsTest consensusExpress member feelingsReduce tensionFollow others leadSet standardsGatekeeper communicationEmpowermentAn

66、 attribute of a person or of an organizations culturePreparation&careful planning focuses empowered employeesEncourages participationFoundations for EmpowermentOrganizational foundationsTeam-oriented work designParticipative,supportive organizational cultureIndividual Prerequisites for EmpowermentThe capability to become psychologically involved in participative activitiesThe motivation to act autonomouslyThe capacity to see the relevance of participation for ones own well beingEmpowerment Skill