风能与及其对未来的环境政策规划：供电可再生能源在加拿大与国外

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1、5 of 781 DOCUMENTSCopyright (c) 2007 Albany Law Environmental Outlook JournalAlbany Law Environmental Outlook Journal200711 Alb. L. Envtl. Outlook 198LENGTH: 35331 wordsARTICLE: WIND ENERGY AND ITS IMPACT ON FUTURE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY PLANNING: POWERING RENEWABLE ENERGY IN CANADA AND ABROADNAME: Ka

2、maal R. ZaidiSUMMARY: . Given the tremendous pressure of using finite conventional sources of energy, many countries are turning to renewable sources of energy to cushion against rising costs and to diversify the means of delivering energy to their citizens. . These early historical developments in

3、wind mill technology helped shape modern wind-powered generation methods seen in todays wind turbine engines, which contribute to renewable energy and provide electricity. . However, to achieve wind energys maximum benefit, a wind farm must be highly integrated into an existing electrical transmissi

4、on and distribution grid network. . With recent advances in wind turbine technology, application of wind energy is contributing to employment in the renewable sector. . This is where wind energy purchase plans become a hallmark of consumer interest for renewable energy. . Groups like the Canadian Wi

5、nd Energy Association support RPS initiatives across Canada to steer energy producers towards the purchase of renewable energy, while providing consumers, particularly new home buyers, with more reasonable energy costs for electricity consumption. . In 2004, the DOEs National Renewable Energy Labora

6、tory awarded the WTC $ 800,000 to work on developing prototype 5 781文件 版权所有（ C ）2007奥尔巴尼法律环境展望杂志 奥尔巴尼法律环境展望杂志 2007年 11 Alb. L. Envtl.。展望198长度： 35331字 文章：风能和及其对未来的环境政策规划：供电可再生能源在加拿大和国外 作者： Kamaal R. Zaidi摘要： 鉴于使用有限的常规能源所产生的巨大压力，许多国家开始转向使用可再生能源以降低上升的成本，并且使用多种手段为本国公民提供能源。.这些早期风车技术的发展有助于形成现代风力发电的方法，这种方法

7、应用于现今的风力引擎中，促进可再生能源的开发应用且提供了电能。.然而，为了实现风力发电的最大获利，一个风电场必须高度集成到现有的电力传输和分配输电网络中。.随着风力发电机技术的发展，风力发电的应用有助于可再生能源部门的就业。. 这就是为什么，对于可再生能源来说，风能采购计划会成为代表消费者利益的标志。.像加拿大风能协会这样的组织支持建立横跨加拿大的定位系统的倡议，以引导能源生产者购买可再生能源，同时为消费者，特别是新购房者，提供由于电力消费而产生的适度能源消耗。. 2004年，美国能源部的国家再生能源实验室给予世贸中心八十万美元为发展风力涡轮机的原型，其中包括一台750千瓦风力发电机。.例如，

8、1990年的电力提供法和2000年的可再生能源法（以下简称RESA），这两项立法已经阻碍了德国的风力发展。. 文字： wind turbines, including a 750 kilowatt wind turbine. . For example, the Electricity Feed Act of 1990 and the Renewable Energy Sources Act (hereinafter RESA) of 2000 are two pieces of legislation that have spurned the development of wind ene

9、rgy in Germany.TEXT:*200 Introduction Given the tremendous pressure of using finite conventional sources of energy, many countries are turning to renewable sources of energy to cushion against rising costs and to diversify the means of delivering energy to their citizens. Wind energy is one example

10、of an innovative strategy to provide energy to citizens in a clean, abundant, and reliable fashion. As rising electricity costs and environmental damage turn societies away from conventional electricity sources such as fossil fuels (i.e., coal, natural gas, etc.), government sponsored efforts and te

11、chnological innovations are pushing wind energy to the forefront of environmental policy planning. More specifically, the Canadian government has implemented financial incentives to encourage public and private businesses to establish renewable energy sources. This paper examines the role of wind en

12、ergy in Canada and abroad in terms of how its emergence is recognized as one of the best examples of implementing sound environmental regimes to replace expensive conventional methods of energy extraction and utilization.Part I examines the history and background of wind energy, providing an overvie

13、w of wind energy use in various cultures and time periods. Part II explains the role of wind energy in the context of the Kyoto Protocol. As part of this global initiative, wind energy is reviewed in terms of how it contributes to a green economy. Part III discusses the technology behind wind energy

14、 generation, more specifically, the functionality of wind turbines and their role in distributing electricity to surrounding communities. Part IV focuses on the application of wind energy in the Canadian economy. Here, various wind programs are examined in selected provinces to illustrate modern tre

15、nds in diversifying the energy sector. Finally, Part V outlines the trend in global application of wind energy 导言 鉴于使用有限的常规能源所产生的巨大压力，许多国家开始转向使用可再生能源以降低上升的成本，并且使用多种手段为本国公民提供能源。风能作为一个创新战略的例子之一，它提供给公民一种清洁，丰富，可靠的能源。日益上升的电力成本和环境损害使社会拒绝使用如矿物燃料（如煤，天然气等）等常规电力，政府的大力推进和技术创新正将风能推到环境政策计划的前沿。更具体地讲，加拿大政府实施财政奖励办法

16、，以鼓励公共和私营的企业建立可再生能源。本文讨论的是风能在加拿大和外国的作用，它的出现方式被认为是执行健全的环境制度来取代昂贵的传统能源开采和利用方法的最好方法之一。 第一部分研究的是风能的历史和背景，介绍了风能在不同文化和时代的利用情况。第二部分介绍了风能在京都议定书中的地位。作为这个全球性的倡议的一部分，风能在如何支持“绿色”经济这一问题上广受关注。第三部分论述了风力发电的技术，更确切地说，是风力发电机的功能，以及它们在为周边社区的分配电力中的作用。第四部分侧重说明风能在加拿大经济领域上应用。在这部分，为明确能源领域的多样化的现代趋势在选定的省份实施各种计划。最后，第五部分通过概括了风能项

17、目的全球性应用在各个国家的发展趋势。讨论的重点是一些国家正在积极参与发展风能项目，以减少对矿物燃料的依赖，同时提供可负担得起的电力和提高能源输出风能项目。这些国家包括美国，丹麦，德国，西班牙，英国/爱尔projects in various countries. The discussion focuses on several nations that are actively participating in the development of wind energy projects to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, while providi

18、ng affordable electricity and improving energy output from wind projects. These nations include the United States, Denmark, Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom/Ireland, Australia, China, India, and Japan. *201 I. History and Background of Wind Energy Wind energy production traces back to ancient civi

19、lizations. n1 It is believed that over 2000 years ago, for example, Chinese civilizations used the first vertical-axis windmill to pump water and grind grain for agricultural purposes. n2 Around 500-900 A.D., the ancient Persians also used wind energy to pump water on arid lands and grind grain with

20、 vertical axis devices known as panemones. n3 The island of Crete still has remnants of windmill technology that help irrigate crops and provide water for livestock. n4 Pre-industrial Europe saw the evolution from the Persian vertical-axis design to a horizontal-axis design. n5 While it is unknown w

21、hy this happened, one possibility is that European water wheels used the horizontal-axis design, which could have served as a model. n6 Another possibility is that horizontal-axis designs are more efficient. n7 The Dutch modified these tower mills in Holland around 1390 by designing them to create a

22、erodynamic lift in propelling the windmill sails. n8 Eventually, windmill sails had all the characteristics that modern engineers recognize as essential to modern turbine blade performance. n9The Halladay windmill was introduced in the United States in 1854, followed by the Aermotor and Dempster des

23、igns, which still exist today. n10 In the late 19th century, Charles F. Brush developed the first large-scale wind project in Cleveland, Ohio, *202 which created a low-speed, high-solidity rotor called the Brush machine. n11 In the 1920s, North American farms developed fan-type and sail rotor design

24、s for windmills that pumped water and electricity. n12 The modern design of vertical axis windmills with slender, airfoil-section blades, was developed from the French 兰，澳大利亚，中国，印度和日本。一，风能的历史和背景 风能生产可追溯到古代文明。据说在两千多年前，中国是第一个在农业方面使用垂直轴风车泵水和研磨粮食的。大约在公元500-900年，古代波斯人也使用风能来给干旱地区灌溉和碾磨粮食，这种垂直轴装置称为panemones

25、 。克里特岛仍然残存可以帮助灌溉作物，并给牲畜提供水的风车技术。工业化前欧洲见证了波斯湾从垂直轴设计到横向轴设计的演变。虽然这种演变的原因不明，但是有一种可能是，欧洲水车轮曾采用过可能作为一个模型的横向轴设计。另一种可能性是横向轴的设计更有效。大约在1390年，荷兰人改良了碾磨塔，使它能产生气动生力推动风车帆。最后，风车帆具备了现代的工程师认为的现代涡轮叶片必须具备的所有特征。1984年美国引进了Halladay风车，随后又引进了Aermotor和Dempster设计的风车，这些风车至今仍然存在。在19世纪末，Charles F. Brush在美国俄亥俄州克里夫兰市发明了第一台大型风力设备，其

26、中低速，高坚固转子被称为刷机。在20世纪20年代，北美农场开发设计了范型和帆转子风车的来供水和供电。现代的垂直轴风车具有细长，翼型节刀片，这是由GJM Darrieus在20世纪20年代从法国的风车设计发展来的。这些早期风车技术的发展有助于形成现代风力发电的方法，这种方法应用于现今的风力引擎中，促进可再生能源的开发应用且提供了电能。 design in the 1920s by G.J.M Darrieus. n13 These early historical developments in wind mill technology helped shape modern wind-powe

27、red generation methods seen in todays wind turbine engines, which contribute to renewable energy and provide electricity. n14The Canadian governments renewable energy network defines renewable energy as a source that produces usable energy without depleting natural resources while having only a mino

28、r impact on the environment. n15 Renewable energy sources typically include water, biomass, wind, solar and geothermal energy. n16 There is currently a high demand for renewable energy *203 use, particularly among nations that are implementing major wind power projects to create sustainable resource

29、 development. n17 Many of these nations have held environmental conferences with the intention of searching for more viable approaches to provide energy to its citizens. n18 Wind energy generation technology that promotes cleaner and more efficient methods of energy delivery is proving beneficial in

30、 terms of economic feasibility and in terms of reducing the environmental impact. n19 Not surprisingly therefore, wind energy is the fastest growing energy source. n20II. The Technology Behind Wind Energy Generation Perhaps the greatest attribute of wind energy is its natural availability. Wind is n

31、ormally produced from differences in temperature gradients in high and low pressure zones, which are created from the land absorbing sunlight and emitting heat. n21 *204 Cooler air rushes in the spaces left by the rising hot air, generating surface winds. n22 These surface winds are captured as kine

32、tic energy by wind turbine engines when the wind turns the turbines blades, n23 which are attached to a shaft. n24 The shaft is attached to a generator, and as the blades rotate from the winds, the generator also rotates and the wind energy is converted into electricity. n25 Various factors such as

33、wind speed determine the rate at which turbine propellers turn, thereby affecting the amount of energy produced. n26 Generally, as wind speed increases, the energy output increases from the turbine, producing more electricity. 加拿大政府的可再生能源网络是 这样定义可再生能源的，可再生能源是一种在不耗尽自然资源的前提下产生有用能源且对环境影响极小的能源。可再生能源主要包括

34、水，生物能源，风能，太阳能和地热能。目前各国对于可再生能源的使用有很高的需求，特别是正在实施重大的风力发电项目以建立可持续的资源开发。为寻找更加切实可行的办法为其公民提供能源，许多国家已举行环境会议。风力发电技术是能够提供更加清洁、有效的能源供应方法，它在经济方面具有可行性，且有利于降低对环境的影响。因此不足为奇的是，风能是增长最快的能源。二，风力发电的技术 也许风能最大的属性就是它的自然实用性。高低压区是由土地吸收阳光和排放热量产生的，风通常就是产生于这种不同温度梯度的高，低压区。上升的热空气带动空中的冷空气运动，产生表面风。当风使连接着轴的汽轮机叶片转动时，这些表面风便被用来作为风力涡轮发

35、动机的动能。轴连着发动机，风使叶片旋转，发动机也旋转，风能便转化为电能。许多因素，如风速，决定着涡轮螺旋桨转动的速率，因此，影响能源产量。一般而言，随着风速的增加，涡轮产生的能量增加，从而产生更多的电力。风速，依次取决于地形，空气的密度，空气温度，气压和海拔。这就是为什么风轮机往往位于发射塔上，往往是在有强风的地区。各种能源形式如风能，促进了“绿色能源”应用的不断发展。因此，风能主要是通过涡轮发动机来进Wind speed, in turn, depends on the terrain, the density of air, air temperature, barometric pres

36、sure, and altitude. n28 This is why wind turbines are frequently located on tall towers, often in areas of high winds. n29 Forms of energy such as wind comprise the growing wave of green energy applications. n30Wind energy is thus mainly produced by turbine engines, and more specifically, by rotors.

37、 n31 The rotors of turbine engines *205 consist of propeller blades that capture the winds energy, and they are attached to a generator that creates electricity. n32 The rotor blades are usually made from glass polyester or glass epoxy, sometimes in combination with wood or carbon. n33 The turbine e

38、ngines are normally situated high-up on steel towers to take advantage of stronger winds that produce greater lift (low pressure winds pulling the blade, causing the rotor to turn), thereby producing greater energy output. n34 Large wind turbines can be subdivided into horizontal axis and vertical a

39、xis turbines. n35 Wind turbines can be used by homeowners with single turbine engines or for large scale operations on wind farms, n36 a collection of towers equipped with large wind turbines. n37 Normally, wires that run down the tower carry electricity to the electrical grid, where it is stored or

40、 used. n38 Wind turbine engines produce electricity to local utility power grids that supply electricity to the community. n39Wind farms generate large-scale energy that drives electricity to several designated communities and enables residents to purchase wind energy through various companies at re

41、asonable *206 rates. n40 The average wind turbine lasts 20-25 years, depending on the design and its functionality. n41 With respect to wind energy capacity, it is estimated that a 1 megawatt (MW) turbine engine with a 30 percent capacity produces about 2,600 megawatt-hour (MWh) per year, a process

42、which may power up to 320 homes. n42 However, to achieve wind energys maximum benefit, a wind farm must be highly integrated into an existing electrical transmission and distribution grid network. n43 The technology of wind turbines has developed over time. n44 In the 1970s and 1980s, wind turbines

43、operated under classical control designs to regulate 行生产，更具体地说，是通过转n27 子。涡轮发动机的转子包括用来捕捉风的能量的螺旋桨桨叶，它们附属于能够发电的发电机。转子叶片通常由玻璃聚酯或玻璃环氧树脂制成的，有时结合木材或碳制成。发动机的涡轮通常位于铁塔的高处上，以便利用大风产生更大的“提力” （低压风推动叶片，使转子转动），从而输出更多的能量。大型风力发电机可分为水平轴和垂直轴涡轮机。业主们通过单涡轮发动机或者通过可以大规模运行的风力发电场来使用风力涡轮机，这些风力发电场拥有很多的配备了大型风力发电机的塔。通常，电缆从电塔上延伸下来

44、，将电运送到电网上，用来存储或使用。风力涡轮发电机为地方公用电网提供电力，这些电网又为居民供给电力。风力发电场产生的大规模能源被分配到那些指定的社区，而居民在电力公司用合理的价格来购买使用那些风能。风力发电机平均可以持续使用20-25年，这取决于它的设计和功能。关于风能发电生产量，据估计，1兆瓦涡轮发动机，以百分之三十的功率计算每年可生产约2600万千瓦小时（兆瓦），可供320个家庭使用。然而，为了实现风力发电的最大利益，一个风力发电场必须高度集成到现有的电力传输和分配网格网络。风力涡轮机技术在一段时间内得到了发展。在上世纪70年代和80年代，风力发电依靠传统的控制设计来调节力量和速度。然而，

45、现代的涡轮是安装在高塔上的更大、更有效的发电机。下图，图1 ，提供了风能是如何工作的基本演示。 power and speed. n45 However, modern turbines are mounted on tall towers, are larger, and more efficient electricity generators. n46 The following diagram, Diagram 1, offers a basic illustration of how wind energy production works. *207 Diagram 1: Simp

46、le Overview of Wind Energy ApplicationSEE DIAGRAM 1 IN ORIGINALIII. Wind Energy as Green and its Role Under Canadas Commitment to the Kyoto ProtocolWind energy is regarded as green technology because it produces no air pollutants or greenhouse gases, and thus has little impact on the environment. n4

47、7 Therefore, wind energy neither uses any source of fuel, nor produces toxic or radioactive waste. n48 Wind farms have had some impact on specific bird and *208 bat populations. n49 However, as long as an appropriate site is located, the capture of wind energy also poses little threat to damaging su

48、rrounding ecosystems, including wildlife and fauna and flora. n50 Wind farming is popular among farmers because they can still grow crops and graze livestock on their land with little interference from wind turbines. n51 Using wind energy instead of conventional fossil fuels to power approximately 2

49、00 homes would leave around 900,000 kilograms of coal in the ground and reduce annual greenhouse emissions by 2,000 tonnes. n52In the context of global environmental reforms like the Kyoto Protocol (The Protocol), harnessing renewable forms of energy such as wind becomes a crucial step in meeting br

50、oad objectives of sustainable resource development. n53 The Protocol was a global agreement ratified in 1997 by developed nations, in response to the increasing demands of renewable energy use and high rates of industrialized pollution. n54 The Protocol curbs greenhouse gas emissions worldwide, and

51、contributes to global climate change. *209 While Canada signed the Protocol, other industrialized countries, including many traditional energy producers, were skeptical of the threat posed by 图1 ：简单概述风能利用 图1原 三、风能作为“绿色”能源和它在加拿大签订京都议定书中的作用 风力发电被认为是“绿色”技术是因为它不产生任何空气污染物或温室气体，因此对环境影响极小。因此，风力发电既没有使用任何燃料，

52、也没有产生有毒或放射性废物。风力发电厂对特定种类的鸟以及蝙蝠种群造成了一些影响。但是，只要放置在适当的地点，风能的利用就几乎不会破坏周围的生态系统，包括野生动物、动物和植物。利用风能来耕作深受农民的欢迎，因为在土地上放置风力涡轮机对他们种植作物和放牧牲畜几乎没有产生任何干扰。利用风能来代替传统的矿石燃料给约200户家庭提供电力的话将节省900,000公斤煤炭，并且每年减少2000吨的温室气体排放量。 在全球环境的改革中，如京都议定书，利用如风能等可再生资源是资源可持续发展的关键步骤。该议定书是在1997年由发达国家批准的一个全球性的协议，以回应可再生能源的需求的日益增加和工业的高污染率。该议定

53、书限制全球温室气体的排放，有助于防止全球气候变化。虽然加拿大签署了该议定书，但是其他工业化国家，包括许多传统能源的生产者，对全球变暖的威胁持怀疑态度。的确，评论家讨论该协议的成本和收益，以及气候变化是否会有巨大变化。尽管如此，寻找可再生能源是一个国家努力改变自己提取和利用自然资源的global warming. n55 Indeed, commentators debate the costs and benefits of the Protocol, and whether there is a dramatic shift in climate change. n56 Despite th

54、is, searching for renewable energy sources is a high priority for nations striving to change their methods of extracting and using natural resources, while achieving economic self-sufficiency and price controls on soaring energy costs. n57In the past twenty years, researchers in universities, privat

55、e research labs, and utility companies have developed or improved upon renewable forms of energy, including wind energy. n58 For instance, physicists and aerodynamic engineers have been improving upon the technology that is behind wind turbine operations. n59 This work has been using cutting-edge ma

56、terials and developing innovative designs of wind turbines in order to improve electricity output. n60 This process helps reduce the electricity consumption in cities, towns, and remote communities such as farms. n61 *210 The Canadian government recognizes the importance of renewable energy and is i

57、nvesting in such projects to find more appropriate and more cost-efficient means of supplying energy. n62 For instance, the government expects that over $ 1.5 billion in capital investments will encourage development of wind turbine projects across Canada. n63 Another method of harvesting wind energ

58、y is the building of wind farms in shallow waters near coastlines where energy is generally self-regulated and may not be subject to local energy laws and market regulation. n64 This is especially practical in small countries because it does not use the little land area they have to begin with. n65

59、Offshore wind projects are quickly becoming the latest trend in modern renewable energy development. n66 However, challenges remain in acquiring wind energy offshore due to heavy costs, geographical barriers, unfavorable climatic conditions, and negative impact on wildlife. n67IV. Application of Win

60、d Energy to the Canadian Economy Wind energy is one of the fastest growing forms of 方法的最优先选择，同时实现经济自给自足和控制高涨的能源成本。 在过去的20年里，大学研究人员，私人研究实验室，以及公用事业公司已经开发或改进可再生能源，包括风能。例如，物理学家和空气动力学工程师这个致力于改进风力涡轮机操作的技术。他们一直在利用最先进的材料和创新设计来改善风力涡轮机的电力输出。这一探索有助于减少城市，城镇和偏远社区如农场的电力消耗。 加拿大政府认识到可再生能源的重要性并积极投资此类项目可以找到更适当、更符合成本效

61、益的供应能源的方式。举例来说，加拿大政府预计投入超过15亿美元来鼓励发展风力发电机组项目。另一种获得风能的方法是在靠近海岸线的浅水区建设风力发电场，一般情况下这种地方能够自我调节，不会受到地方能源法规和市场调节。这一点对小国来说尤其适用，因为这种风力发电机无需占用它们那本已少得可怜的土地。海上风能项目正在迅速成为现代可再生能源发展的最新趋势。但是，费用昂贵，地理障碍，不利的气候条件，以及对野生动物的负面影响使在海上获取风能充满了挑战。四、 风能在加拿大经济领域上应用 风能是在世界上增长最快的可再生能源的形式。除了拥有对环境最小的不利影响，风能技术通过设置更合理的电力消费价格来影响经济，为可再生

62、能源部门创造新的就业机会。在城市和农村施行的基础设施计划，为将来renewable energy in the world. n68 Aside from having minimal negative impact on the environment, wind energy technology impacts the economy by setting more reasonable electricity prices for consumption, and creating new jobs in the renewable sector. n69 *211 Infrastru

63、cture plans in both urban and rural settings are incorporating wind energy in preparation for future resource development. In 2005 alone, Canadas wind energy capacity grew by fifty four percent. n70 In Canada, like many other nations, there are two forms of wind energy applications: (1) large scale

64、and (2) small scale. n71 Large-scale wind generation gives power to local utility grid systems, which provide energy to large communities. n72 Small-scale wind generation contributes to energy in smaller, more locally designated sites. n73 With recent advances in wind turbine technology, application

65、 of wind energy is contributing to employment in the renewable sector. n74To encourage the use of wind energy, current policy options the Canadian Government should consider include: Feed-in Tariffs: guarantee payment for electricity produced by wind energy Production Subsidies: provide a guaranteed payment or tax incentive per kWh produced Investment Subsidies: help support the high capital costs of wind energy through grants, loans, favorable tax treatment Investment Incenti