毕业论文外文翻译-电信现代运营

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1、外文翻译（原文）Telecommunication Modern OperationTelephoneIn an analogue telephone network, the caller is connected to the person he wants to talk to by switches at various telephone exchanges. The switches form an electrical connection between the two users and the setting of these switches is determined

2、electronically when the caller dials the number. Once the connection is made, the callers voice is transformed to an electrical signal using a small microphone in the callers handset. This electrical signal is then sent through the network to the user at the other end where it transformed back into

3、sound by a small speaker in that persons handset. There is a separate electrical connection that works in reverse, allowing the users to converse. The fixed-line telephones in most residential homes are analogue that is, the speakers voice directly determines the signals voltage. Although short-dist

4、ance calls may be handled from end-to-end as analogue signals, increasingly telephone service providers are transparently converting the signals to digital for transmission before converting them back to analogue for reception. The advantage of this is that digitized voice data can travel side-by-si

5、de with data from the Internet and can be perfectly reproduced in long distance communication (as opposed to analogue signals that are inevitably impacted by noise).Mobile phones have had a significant impact on telephone networks. Mobile phone subscriptions now outnumber fixed-line subscriptions in

6、 many markets. Sales of mobile phones in 2005 totalled 816.6 million with that figure being almost equally shared amongst the markets of Asia/Pacific (204 m), Western Europe (164 m), CEMEA (Central Europe, the Middle East and Africa) (153.5 m), North America (148 m) and Latin America (102 m). In ter

7、ms of new subscriptions over the five years from 1999, Africa has outpaced other markets with 58.2% growth. Increasingly these phones are being serviced by systems where the voice content is transmitted digitally such as GSM or W-CDMA with many markets choosing to depreciate analogue systems such as

8、 AMPS. There have also been dramatic changes in telephone communication behind the scenes. Starting with the operation of TAT-8 in 1988, the 1990s saw the widespread adoption of systems based on optic fibres. The benefit of communicating with optic fibres is that they offer a drastic increase in dat

9、a capacity. TAT-8 itself was able to carry 10 times as many telephone calls as the last copper cable laid at that time and todays optic fibre cables are able to carry 25 times as many telephone calls as TAT-8. This increase in data capacity is due to several factors: First, optic fibres are physical

10、ly much smaller than competing technologies. Second, they do not suffer from crosstalk which means several hundred of them can be easily bundled together in a single cable. Lastly, improvements in multiplexing have led to an exponential growth in the data capacity of a single fibre. Assisting commun

11、ication across many modern optic fibre networks is a protocol known as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). The ATM protocol allows for the side-by-side data transmission mentioned in the second paragraph. It is suitable for public telephone networks because it establishes a pathway for data through th

12、e network and associates a traffic contract with that pathway. The traffic contract is essentially an agreement between the client and the network about how the network is to handle the data; if the network cannot meet the conditions of the traffic contract it does not accept the connection. This is

13、 important because telephone calls can negotiate a contract so as to guarantee themselves a constant bit rate, something that will ensure a callers voice is not delayed in parts or cut-off completely. There are competitors to ATM, such as Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS), that perform a similar

14、task and are expected to supplant ATM in the future. Radio and televisionIn a broadcast system, a central high-powered broadcast tower transmits a high-frequency electromagnetic wave to numerous low-powered receivers. The high-frequency wave sent by the tower is modulated with a signal containing vi

15、sual or audio information. The antenna of the receiver is then tuned so as to pick up the high-frequency wave and a demodulator is used to retrieve the signal containing the visual or audio information. The broadcast signal can be either analogue (signal is varied continuously with respect to the in

16、formation) or digital (information is encoded as a set of discrete values). The broadcast media industry is at a critical turning point in its development, with many countries moving from analogue to digital broadcasts. This move is made possible by the production of cheaper, faster and more capable

17、 integrated circuits. The chief advantage of digital broadcasts is that they prevent a number of complaints with traditional analogue broadcasts. For television, this includes the elimination of problems such as snowy pictures, ghosting and other distortion. These occur because of the nature of anal

18、ogue transmission, which means that perturbations due to noise will be evident in the final output. Digital transmission overcomes this problem because digital signals are reduced to discrete values upon reception and hence small perturbations do not affect the final output. In a simplified example,

19、 if a binary message 1011 was transmitted with signal amplitudes 1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 and received with signal amplitudes 0.9 0.2 1.1 0.9 it would still decode to the binary message 1011 a perfect reproduction of what was sent. From this example, a problem with digital transmissions can also be seen in t

20、hat if the noise is great enough it can significantly alter the decoded message. Using forward error correction a receiver can correct a handful of bit errors in the resulting message but too much noise will lead to incomprehensible output and hence a breakdown of the transmission. In digital televi

21、sion broadcasting, there are three competing standards that are likely to be adopted worldwide. These are the ATSC, DVB and ISDB standards; the adoption of these standards thus far is presented in the captioned map. All three standards use MPEG-2 for video compression. ATSC uses Dolby Digital AC-3 f

22、or audio compression, ISDB uses Advanced Audio Coding (MPEG-2 Part 7) and DVB has no standard for audio compression but typically uses MPEG-1 Part 3 Layer 2. The choice of modulation also varies between the schemes. In digital audio broadcasting, standards are much more unified with practically all

23、countries choosing to adopt the Digital Audio Broadcasting standard (also known as the Eureka 147 standard). The exception being the United States which has chosen to adopt HD Radio. HD Radio, unlike Eureka 147, is based upon a transmission method known as in-band on-channel transmission that allows

24、 digital information to piggyback on normal AM or FM analogue transmissions. However, despite the pending switch to digital, analogue receivers still remain widespread. Analogue television is still transmitted in practically all countries. The United States had hoped to end analogue broadcasts on De

25、cember 31, 2006; however, this was recently pushed back to February 17, 2009. For analogue television, there are three standards in use. These are known as PAL, NTSC and SECAM. For analogue radio, the switch to digital is made more difficult by the fact that analogue receivers are a fraction of the

26、cost of digital receivers. The choice of modulation for analogue radio is typically between amplitude modulation (AM) or frequency modulation (FM). To achieve stereo playback, an amplitude modulated subcarrier is used for stereo FM.The InternetThe Internet is a worldwide network of computers and com

27、puter networks that can communicate with each other using the Internet Protocol. Any computer on the Internet has a unique IP address that can be used by other computers to route information to it. Hence, any computer on the Internet can send a message to any other computer using its IP address. The

28、se messages carry with them the originating computers IP address allowing for two-way communication. In this way, the Internet can be seen as an exchange of messages between computers. An estimated 16.9% of the world population has access to the Internet with the highest access rates (measured as a

29、percentage of the population) in North America (69.7%), Oceania/Australia (53.5%) and Europe (38.9%).In terms of broadband access, Iceland (26.7%), South Korea (25.4%) and the Netherlands (25.3%) lead the world. The Internet works in part because of protocols that govern how the computers and router

30、s communicate with each other. The nature of computer network communication lends itself to a layered approach where individual protocols in the protocol stack run more-or-less independently of other protocols. This allows lower-level protocols to be customized for the network situation while not ch

31、anging the way higher-level protocols operate. A practical example of why this is important is because it allows an Internet browser to run the same code regardless of whether the computer it is running on is connected to the Internet through an Ethernet or Wi-Fi connection. Protocols are often talk

32、ed about in terms of their place in the OSI reference model, which emerged in 1983 as the first step in an unsuccessful attempt to build a universally adopted networking protocol suite. For the Internet, the physical medium and data link protocol can vary several times as packets traverse the globe.

33、 This is because the Internet places no constraints on what physical medium or data link protocol is used. This leads to the adoption of media and protocols that best suit the local network situation. In practice, most intercontinental communication will use the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) prot

34、ocol (or a modern equivalent) on top of optic fibre. This is because for most intercontinental communication the Internet shares the same infrastructure as the public switched telephone network.At the network layer, things become standardized with the Internet Protocol (IP) being adopted for logical

35、 addressing. For the world wide web, these “IP addresses” are derived from the human readable form using the Domain Name System (e.g. 72.14.207.99 is derived from ). At the moment, the most widely used version of the Internet Protocol is version four but a move to version six is imminent. At the tra

36、nsport layer, most communication adopts either the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is used when it is essential every message sent is received by the other computer where as UDP is used when it is merely desirable. With TCP, packets are retransmitted if t

37、hey are lost and placed in order before they are presented to higher layers. With UDP, packets are not ordered or retransmitted if lost. Both TCP and UDP packets carry port numbers with them to specify what application or process the packet should be handled by. Because certain application-level pro

38、tocols use certain ports, network administrators can restrict Internet access by blocking the traffic destined for a particular port.Above the transport layer, there are certain protocols that are sometimes used and loosely fit in the session and presentation layers, most notably the Secure Sockets

39、Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocols. These protocols ensure that the data transferred between two parties remains completely confidential and one or the other is in use when a padlock appears at the bottom of your web browser. Finally, at the application layer, are many of the p

40、rotocols Internet users would be familiar with such as HTTP (web browsing), POP3 (e-mail), FTP (file transfer), IRC (Internet chat), BitTorrent (file sharing) and OSCAR (instant messaging).Local area networksDespite the growth of the Internet, the characteristics of local area networks (computer net

41、works that run at most a few kilometres) remain distinct. This is because networks on this scale do not require all the features associated with larger networks and are often more cost-effective and efficient without them.In the mid-1980s, several protocol suites emerged to fill the gap between the

42、data link and applications layer of the OSI reference model. These were Appletalk, IPX and NetBIOS with the dominant protocol suite during the early 1990s being IPX due to its popularity with MS-DOS users. TCP/IP existed at this point but was typically only used by large government and research faci

43、lities. As the Internet grew in popularity and a larger percentage of traffic became Internet-related, local area networks gradually moved towards TCP/IP and today networks mostly dedicated to TCP/IP traffic are common. The move to TCP/IP was helped by technologies such as DHCP that allowed TCP/IP c

44、lients to discover their own network address a functionality that came standard with the AppleTalk/IPX/NetBIOS protocol suites. It is at the data link layer though that most modern local area networks diverge from the Internet. Whereas Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or Multiprotocol Label Switchin

45、g (MPLS) are typical data link protocols for larger networks, Ethernet and Token Ring are typical data link protocols for local area networks. These protocols differ from the former protocols in that they are simpler (e.g. they omit features such as Quality of Service guarantees) and offer collision

46、 prevention. Both of these differences allow for more economic set-ups. Despite the modest popularity of Token Ring in the 80s and 90s, virtually all local area networks now use wired or wireless Ethernet. At the physical layer, most wired Ethernet implementations use copper twisted-pair cables (inc

47、luding the common 10BASE-T networks). However, some early implementations used coaxial cables and some recent implementations (especially high-speed ones) use optic fibres. Optic fibres are also likely to feature prominently in the forthcoming 10-gigabit Ethernet implementations. Where optic fibre i

48、s used, the distinction must be made between multi-mode fibre and single-mode fibre. Multi-mode fibre can be thought of as thicker optical fibre that is cheaper to manufacture but that suffers from less usable bandwidth and greater attenuation (i.e. poor long-distance performance). - 7 -外文翻译（译文）电信现代

49、运营电话 在一个模拟电话网络, 来电者通过交换机与对方进行不同的电话交流开关在两用户间形成一个电气连接,其参数是由来电者按键时的电气特性决定的 一旦连接,来电者的声音通过来电端处的电话听筒转化为电信号然后电信号通过网络发送到另一端的用户,并通过小型扬声器将信号转化为声音有一个单独的电气连接用于进行转换,以使用户交谈 固定电话 ,在多数居民区是模拟电话,那就是,发言者的声音,直接决定着信号的电压 虽然距离短,来电可能会被作为模拟信号的端到端信号处理,越来越多电话服务供应商是适度的在传输前将模拟信号数字化以便传输,之后转为模拟信号以便接收它的优势是,数字化语音数据可以从互联网上以数字形式传输,而且

50、可以完全转载于远程通信(对比来看,模拟信号无可避免会受到噪声影响)手机已对电话网络产生了重大影响 移动电话用户现在在许多市场超过了固定线路用户 手机销量在2005年总额为8.166亿,被一下数字平分,其中亚洲/太平洋(2.04亿),西欧(1.64亿),cemea(中欧,中东和非洲)(1.535亿),北美(1.48亿)和拉丁美洲(1.02亿)在从1999年之后的五年时间内新增用户来看,非洲已以58.2 %的增长超过了其他地区的市场手机逐渐采用如GSM或W-CDMA这些可以数字化传输语音信号的系统,从而使AMPS这样的模拟系统衰落电话通信也隐约地有了戏剧性的变化开始运作的TAT-8(跨大西洋传输电

51、缆)始于1988年, 20世纪90年代见证了基于光纤系统的普及光纤传输的优势在于其所提供的数据容量的急剧增加TAT-8可以传输相当于同轴电缆电话10倍的数据,而现在的光纤能传输25倍于TAT-8的数据数据能力的增加是由于几个因素:第一,光纤体积远小于其他竞争技术 第二,他们不受到串扰这意味着数百条光纤可以很容易地捆绑在一个单一的电缆内最后,复用技术的改善导致了单条光纤数据容量的指数增长基于现代光纤网络的通信是一项称为异步传输模式 ( ATM )的协议如第二段所说,ATM协议允许为并排的数据传输它适用于公共电话网络,因为它建立了通过网络数据通道并以此进行通信传输协议基本上是一个用户与网络之间的协

52、议,它规定了网络如何来处理数据;如果网络不能满足条件的传输协议,它不接受连接 这很重要,因为电话可以通过协议,保证自己的恒定比特率,这将确保来电者的声音,不是延迟的部分或完全切断ATM的竞争对手,如多标签交换(MPLS),执行类似的任务,并可望在未来取代ATM 电台和电视台 在一个广播系统,中央高功率广播塔传输高频率的电磁波 ,到众多的低功率接收器上由广播塔发送的高频率波由信号调制且该信号载有视频或音频信息接收天线稍作调整，以提取高频率波,解调器用来恢复载有视力或音频信息的信号广播信号可以是模拟(信号多种多样,载有信息且连续)或数字(信息作为一套离散值,可以编码) 广播媒体业正处于发展中一个关

53、键的转折点,许多国家都从模拟发展到数字广播此举是可使生产更经济,更快且更能够集成电路 与传统的模拟广播相比,数字广播最大的优势是,他们防止了一些投诉对电视来说,这包括消除问题,如雪花屏,重影和其他失真 这些发生原因,是因为模拟传输的性质,这意味着噪声干扰会明显影响最后的输出数字传输,克服了这个问题,因为接收时数字信号变为离散值,这样小扰动不影响最终输出举一个简单的例子,一个二进制信息1011,已与信号的振幅 1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 调制,并收到信号的振幅 0.9 0.2 1.1 0.9 它将仍然解码为二进制信息1011-一个完美原码再现从这个例子可以看出,数字传输也由一个问题,如果噪音

54、足够大,它可以大大改变解码信息 使用前向错误校正接收器可以在最终结果中纠正少数比特错误,但太多的噪音将导致难以理解的输出,因此,传输失败在数字电视广播中,有3个相互竞争的标准,很可能是全世界公认的它们是ATSC标准,DVB标准和ISDB标准;通过这些标准,到目前为止,应用于标题地图 所有这三个标准,使用MPEG - 2 视频压缩 ATSC标准采用杜比数字AC - 3音频压缩,ISDB利用先进音频编码 ( MPEG - 2的第7部分),而DVB没有音频压缩标准,但通常使用MPEG - 1第3部分第2层 不同标准所用的调制方式也有所不同在数字音频广播中,标准更为统一,几乎所有国家都选择采用数字音频

55、广播的标准(也称为作为尤里卡147标准)也有例外,美国已选择采用高清广播高清广播,不同于尤里卡147 ,它是基于称为在带内通道传输的传输方法,这使数字化信息,进行“背驮式”AM或FM模拟传输然而,尽管数字化迫在眉睫,模拟接收机仍然普遍应用 模拟电视仍然传送几乎所有国家美国希望于2006年 12月31日之前结束模拟广播;不过,最近又推到2009年 2月17日 对于模拟电视,有三个标准在使用中它们是PAL制式 ,NTSC制式和SECAM制式 模拟电台,切换到数字变得更加困难,因为模拟接收器只占数字接收机的一小部分成本模拟电台调制方式通常采用AM(幅度调制)或FM(频率调制)为实现立体声播放 ,振幅

56、调制副载波用于立体声调频 互联网 互联网是一个全球计算机组成的网络,也是一种用IP联系在一起的计算机网络在互联网上的任何一台计算机都有一个唯一的IP地址,其他计算机可以用其进行路由选择因此,在互联网上,任何一台电脑可以通过IP地址传送讯息给任何其他的计算机 这些带有计算机IP地址的信息,允许计算机之间双向沟通这样一来,互联网可以被看作是一个计算机之间信息的交换据估计,16.9 %的世界人口已经进入互联网且具有最高访问率(以人口百分比衡量),它们在北美地区(69.7 %),大洋洲/澳大利亚(53.5%)和欧洲(38.9%)在宽带接入方面,冰岛(26.7%),韩国(25.4%)和荷兰(25.3 %

57、)世界领先互联网的成功,部分是因为协议管理计算机和路由器如何互相沟通 计算机网络通信本身的性质,有助于分层实现,此时,协议栈中的各个独立协议或多或少独立于其他协议这使得低级别的协议适应网络的情况,而不影响高层协议的实现一个实际的例子可以说明它的重要性,因为它允许一个互联网浏览器上运行相同的代码，不管运行的计算机连接到互联网是通过以太网还是通过Wi - Fi连接协议经常以其在OSI参考模型中的位置命名,1983年为第一步,也是一次不成功的尝试,它试图建立一个普遍采用的网络协议套件对于互联网来说,物理介质和数据链路层协议可以不同的数倍包遍历全球 这是因为互联网对所用的物理介质或数据链路协议没有限制

58、这导致媒体和协议的应用,它们最适合本地网络的情况在实践中,多数洲际通讯将使用异步转移模式 ( ATM )协议(或一个现代的替代物)并辅以光纤 这是因为,对于大多数的洲际通信来说,互联网与公共交换式电话网络一样拥有相同的基础设施 在网络层,适用于逻辑寻址的IP开始标准化在万维网上,这些“IP地址”来自通过域名系统处理的人类可读格式(例如72.14.207.99是来自)中目前,使用最广泛的版本的互联网协议是版本4 ,但向版本六过渡已是迫在眉睫在传输层大部分通信采用的是传输控制协议(TCP)或用户数据报协议(UDP) TCP是基本协议,每条来自其他计算机的消息均需采用TCP,而UDP只有在有利时才会

59、被采用有了TCP,数据包若在它们置于更高层次前丢失或乱序,它们会被重发有了UDP,数据包丢失时会乱序,也不会重发 TCP和UDP数据包携带端口以便指出数据包应交由哪些应用程序或进程因为某些应用级协议使用某些端口 ,网络管理员可以通过阻断某一特定端口为目的端口的传输限制上网在传输层之上,有一些协议会用到并适当应用于会话层和表示层,最显着的是安全套接层(SSL)和传输层安全 (TLS)协议 这些协议,确保双方之间传输的数据仍然完全保密并且一方或另一方在使用时,挂锁出现于Web浏览器的底部最后,在应用层,有很多的协议为互联网用户所熟悉,如HTTP ( Web浏览) , 的POP3 (电子邮件),FT

60、P (档案传输),IRC (网上聊天),BitTorrent(文件共享)和OSCAR(即时通讯) 局域网 不看互联网的发展, 仅局域网的特点 (运行于几公里内的计算机网络)仍然明显这是因为这种规模的网络并不需要所有与较大的网络有关的功能,因此往往更具成本效益和高效率 在二十世纪八十年代中期,几个协议套件的出现,填补了OSI参考模型中数据链路层和应用层之间的空隙 如AppleTalk,IPX和NetBios与20世纪90年代初占主导地位,因MS-DOS而广受欢迎的协议套件IPX 而TCP / IP,在这一点上,通常只用于大型政府和研究设施随着互联网的受欢迎程度的增长以及较大的流量与互联网逐渐相关

61、,局域网逐步走向TCP / IP今天的网络大多用于TCP / IP流量是常见的向TCP / IP的转变由如允许的TCP / IP客户发现自己的网络地址的DHCP的技术支撑,而这与A ppleTalk,IPX/和N etBIOS协议套件以其成为标准 在数据链路层,最现代的局域网偏离互联网而异步转移模式(ATM)或多协议标签转换 (MPLS)技术是典型的数据链路协议,适用于较大的网络以太网和令牌环网是典型的局域网数据链路协议这些协议不同于前协议,因为它们更简单(例如,它们省略了服务质量保证等功能) ,并提供碰撞预防双方的这些差异,是基于经济成本的考虑尽管令牌环在80年代和90年代有了一定的普及,但

62、是现在几乎所有的局域网使用有线或无线以太网在物理层,大多数有线以太网实现使用铜双绞线电缆 (包括常用的10 Base-T的网络)然而,一些早期的实现使用同轴电缆,而最近的一些实现(特别是超高速的)使用光纤光纤也可能在即将到来的10千兆以太网的实现中有着出色的表现用光纤时,必须对多模光纤和单模光纤加以区分对于制造商来说,多模光纤可以被认为是便宜的厚光纤,但只有较少可用的带宽和更大的衰减(即较差的长途性能)五分钟搞定5000字毕业论文外文翻译，你想要的工具都在这里!在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。由于特殊原

63、因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本）和CNKI“翻译助手。具体操作过程如下： 1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅读文献； 2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了； 3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很

64、高。 另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。四大工具： 1、Google翻译： google，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。我利用它是这样的。一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。回到我自己说的翻译上来。下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译，首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。 在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分

65、着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。 2、CNKI翻译： CNKI翻译助手，这个网站不需要介绍太多，可能有些人也知道的。主要说说它的有点，你进去看看就能发现：搜索的肯定是专业词汇，而且它翻译结果下面有文章与之对应（因为它是CNKI检索提供的，它的翻译是从文献里抽出来的），很实用的一个网站。估计别的写文章的人不是傻子吧，它们的东西我们可以直接拿来用，当然省事了。网址告诉大家，有兴趣的进去看看，你们就会发现其乐无穷！还是很值得用的。 3、网路版金山词霸（不到1M）： 4、有道在线翻译：http: