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1、Project Scheduling in the Financial Management of Supply Chains(excerpts)Author:Durukan Kalyoncu, Guldane Acceptance Date: June In literature, numerous publications on managing supply chains exist most of which has focused on the physical aspects of the supply chains. Although the bottom line is ver

2、y important for managers, there are a limited number of publications that combine the financial management of supply chains with the physical management. Those studies address the supply chain financial performance measurement with different approaches and measures; one of which has been Cash Conver

3、sion Cycle (CCC). Cash Conversion Cycle is a metric that measures the time elapsed from the payment to the suppliers till the receipt of money from the customers. Thus it is a two dimensional concept that incorporates time and financial considerations simultaneously. In that respect it enables compa

4、nies to integrate the operational scheduling with the financial scheduling.When the components of the CCC are examined separately; the Average Payable and Average Receivable Terms are related to the company financial policy and contract terms between supply chain partners. On the other hand, Invento

5、ry Conversion Period depends on the firms inventory policy. Figure 1 assumes that the inventory is in retailers warehouse on the same day with order placement to the manufacturer. Also it assumes that there is no outbound transportation time so on the day that inventory leaves the retailers warehous

6、e it is received by the customer and Accounts Receivable is issued. According to those assumptions Inventory Conversion Period depends on the optimal ordering quantity. In the sense that, CCC is embracing Account Payable, Account Receivable and Inventory Conversion Period; first two are related to t

7、iming of cash inflows and outflows and the third is related to firms operations policy, it is a bridging measurement between operational and financial planning. Also, since CCC is the time passed from cash outflow to cash inflow, it measures how long the firm needs outside financing. Thus many schol

8、ars (Farris and Hutchison (), Soenen (1993), Binti Mohamad and Binti Mohd Saad () stated that the shorter CCC the better the company finances are. However, there are some complications regarding the Cash Conversion Cycle metric approach in financial management of supply chains. Even though supply ch

9、ain partners put considerable efforts to have control over the stream of cash inflow by managing payment terms, these cash inflows are mostly probabilistic due to unpredictable conditions of the downstream players. On the other hand cash outflows to the upper layers of the chain is deterministic; ho

10、wever this depends on the cash available at the time. Figure 2 depicts the “downstream” and “upstream” supply chain partners. Upstream Partners Downstream Partners Vendor Manufacturer Distributor Retailer Customer. Supply Chain Levels As seen from the Gupta and Duttas study (), the early payment of

11、the debts result in the lowest cash outflow at the current period, yet it does not necessarily result in the lowest present value of the cash outflow. Thus managing cash flows in an efficient way is not an easy task taking into account the probabilistic inflows in addition to the tradeoffs between p

12、rompt payment of the debt, which reduces the amount to be paid, and late payment, which increases the interest earned on cash deposits. Those financial considerations become even more complicated for supply chains with long Lead Times. So Lead Time reduction has a huge strategic importance for succe

13、ssful operation of those chains. Nevertheless, managing Lead Time, which is mostly deterministic, is not an easy task either because it affects the cash flow stream in direct or indirect ways. Indirectly, Lead Time reduction affects the cash flows by improving customer service and responsiveness to

14、demand shifts. First of all, Lead Time compression is a costly process including labor cost and additional transportation cost. Second, inventory holding cost can be reduced due to lower requirement for safety stock.Third, reducing Lead Time reduces the Cash Conversion Cycle. As the Cash Conversion

15、Cycle measures how long the companys cash is tied to accounts payables and inventories till fulfilling an order; shortening the Lead Time decreases cost of borrowing, and also it enables the company to deliver the products or services sooner; thus the receivable collection period starts earlier.Alth

16、ough many scholars worked on Lead Time compression in supply chains such as Beesley(1996) and Towill (1996) they both ignore the investment costs needed to achieve a reduction in Lead Time. Also neither Beesley nor Towill touch the cost of borrowing issue, but rather they emphasize the indirect fina

17、ncial effects of time reduction, such as fast response to market and enabling a more accurate demand forecast. What is more, most of the supply chain financial modeling articles are not taking into account the time flexibility factor. As known, companies can reduce Lead Times in exchange for a cost.

18、 So while studying the financial aspects of the supply chain this flexibility should be taken into account. Whereas Ben-Daya and Raoufs (1994) study focuses on the Lead Time flexibility issue by studying the costs of Lead Time reduction along with the effects on the inventory policy such as reorder

19、point and optimal order quantity which affects ordering and inventory holding costs, their study doesnt model a whole supply chain where the transactions with upstream players are taken into account. To sum up, in literature there is lack of a comprehensive approach for the financial management of t

20、he supply chains. Also todays increasingly dynamic companies cannot be managed with static models. Thus, predictive integrated models that take in to account instable financial markets and also capable of ensuring required liquidity while providing timely and efficient response to orders is crucial.

21、 So, with the purpose of building a comprehensive approach that embraces time and money considerations simultaneously, our study uses Cash Conversion Cycle as the decision variable with respect to which we assess the Financial Performance. By using project-scheduling methods in timing of the operati

22、ons and payments, our study aims to find the optimal Cash Conversion Cycle that generates the highest accumulated cash at the end of the one-year period. However, in our model cash inflow is probabilistic thus we dont have control over its effect on the optimal CCC. As a result some of the values th

23、at are changed in order to find the optimal CCC are order quantity, reorder point and the Lead Time and Payable term. So our study starts with analyzing the issues affecting financial management of supply chains and then covers the related previous work that the model is built upon. In the next issu

24、es affecting the financial management in SC are discussed. In section III review of the literature is presented and in Section IV the mathematical model is presented with the objective of maximizing the accumulated net cash at the end of a one-year period. The model considers timing of the cash infl

25、ow and outflows and Lead Time crashing costs simultaneously. Finally illustrative example and sensitivity analysis are presented followed by the conclusion part summarizing findings of the study. Bullwhip effect: It is one of most significant reasons of supply chain inefficiency. It is the amplifica

26、tion of demand variance as the demand information passes from the lower levels (customers) of the supply chain to the upper levels (manufacturers level). It may be severely destructive for the financial management of the supply chain as a whole, particularly the upper levels are the ones most affect

27、ed. Each partner, knowing that the forecasts they retrieve from the lower partners are not one hundred percent accurate, builds safety stock. Thus the orders to the upper levels increase as more and more safety stock is built in the system, which leads the upper tiers to have an impression that the

28、demand is more than its actual level. So longer Lead Times result in higher safety stock levels which in turn leads bigger amplifications in the upper levels as known as the Bullwhip Effect. Demand forecast: For make to stock inventory systems demand forecast is the most important aspect of producti

29、on management. As cycle time increases, forecasts have to be made for farther periods, which in turn increases the forecast errors. And when the accuracy of the forecast decreases, firms are forced to keep more safety inventory and thus incur higher inventory holding cost. On the flip side of the co

30、in, even if a firm decides to keep low inventory levels, in such a blurry environment there is high probability that it falls short in responding to customer orders which hurts the profits as much as the inventory holding costs. Thus, by shortening the supply chain cycle time the entire chain benefi

31、ts from accurate demand forecast.Cost of borrowing/ investing: Cost of borrowing is another key aspect of the financial management of the supply chain. Since more interest is charged with the time elapsed over the issue date of the debt, firms should ensure collection of money from the customers as

32、early as possible in order to pay the debts. Apparently, collection periods primary determinant is the cycle time since the customers usually are not willing to pay before they receive the product unless some incentives such as discounts are offered in advance. Inventory holding cost: According to B

33、en-Daya and Raoufs(1994) economic order quantity (EOQ) model, as Lead Time increases, optimal order quantity Q* increases; therefore the average inventory held by the firm over the year, and corresponding holding cost increase. Apart from the physical cost of inventory holding, higher obsolescence c

34、ost related to higher levels of inventory should be taken into account in case of change in technology or new trends in demand. What is more, opportunity cost is another side of the inventory holding in the sense that the capital is tied to inventory rather than other money-making investments. Lead

35、Time crashing cost: Firms can shorten the time needed to produce and deliver the products to customers but this can be done at a cost known as reduction or crashing cost. Lead Time vs. crashing cost graph is negative exponential (decreasing function). Crashing process starts with the longest lead (p

36、rocessing) time for the activities which corresponds to the least cost, then as the Lead Time is reduced the cost increases exponentially as illustrated in Figure 3. Consequently, the total Lead Time can be decomposed into components depending on the amount invested in reducing/crashing the Lead Tim

37、e.Cash to Cash cycle, which is first defined by Gitman (1974) was further examined by Gallinger (1997) as the length of the period that the firms operating cycle needs to be supported by costly financing. And he adds; “You can think of the operating cycle as the number of days sales are invested in

38、inventories and receivables (Gallinger, 1997). As seen from Gallingers definition longer Cash Conversion Cycles damage company finances in terms of cost of borrowing/ financing the necessary funds. Thus, shortening the CCC is a key metric for the company financial management. In that sense, further

39、analysis of the CCC made by Soenen (1993) decomposes it into three sections:1. The length of the credit term that the company gets from its suppliers, 2. The length of the production process, and 3. The number of days the final products remains in inventory before they are sold. So, in this study we

40、 are going to examine the effects of lead-time reduction; in other words shortening the total lead time along with the optimal timing for Accounts Receivables and Payables on financial management of the supply chain. Besides reducing the CCC, Lead Time compression benefits the organizations in other

41、 ways too. Beesley (1996) states that, the idea of quick response in the retail environment and that of just-in- time (JIT) in the manufacturing arena are two important aspects where time reduction plays a critical role. The value of time in marketing is vital says Beesley and adds, as businesses be

42、come more and more competitive, the time factor becomes more critical. What is more, according to him, since the end consumers demand high variety of choice, retailers today should hold minimal stock so that they can maximize the product range held under one roof and also offer a better service thro

43、ugh faster replenishment. The author states that although these factors give competitive advantage to the companies, customers may not be willing to pay more for speed and variety. The aim in “time compression” is to cut the amount of time consumed by business processes; therefore the process of con

44、verting inputs into outputs (manufacturing time) takes a shorter period of time. Thus the key to achieve time compression is getting rid of wasted time and rearranging the sequence of the activities accordingly. However Beesley draws attention to a very important fact that the logistical strategies

45、are most effective when applied to the supply chain in its broadest context where the scope of supply chain is anything that converts a resource into a delivered, consumable product or service. This is called the “holistic approach” or a total system view according to Beesley. So, according to him i

46、n his paper “ Time compression in the Supply Chain”, competitiveness should come from the whole supply chain system, not just from the company (producer) itself. Besides shortening the Lead Time another way to improve the Cash Conversion Cycle is extending the average accounts payable term according

47、 to Farris and Hutchison (). Since it is the time elapsed between issuance of the debt and the cash outflow, longer payable terms enables companies to obtain interest-free financing. However Farris and Hutchison omit the penalty that the manufacturers may charge for a longer payment term, which will

48、 increase the cash outflows. What is more, when stating the primary leverage points to manage CCC, they put emphasis on reducing the average accounts receivable term however in order to encourage the downstream partners of supply chain to make early payments, the company should offer discount, which

49、 in turn reduces the amount of cash inflows. And finally, reducing the total Lead Time is not free of charge to companies. In that sense Nobanee () worked on an improved way of modeling the optimal CCC for supply chains where he defines the optimal CCC as follows, See Figure 1: Optimal Cash Conversi

50、on Cycle = Optimal Inventory Conversion Period + Optimal Receivable Collection Period Optimal Payable Deferral Period. As seen from Nobanees equations compressing each component to its shortest time will not necessarily lead to better financial results. The optimal points should be found for each co

51、mponent of the lead-time. Since the Cash Conversion Cycle measures how long the companys cash is tied to fulfilling an order until the company receives cash, shortening the Lead Time affects the optimal Cash Conversion Cycle and accordingly the financial management of the supply chain in two ways: I

52、n our model, working on a three tier supply chain consisting of a manufacturer, retailer and a customer, we are examining the financial effects of any change made in the components of Cash Conversion Cycle on the retailer. Our retailer bases its inventory planning on forecast of demand so places ord

53、er to the manufacturer in advance by using Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) Model. The retailer issues accounts payable upon placing the order to the manufacturer. The shipment of the items occurs after the manufacturers order-processing time. So it takes order processing time plus inbound transportati

54、on time for the retailer to receive the items which is initially 20 days in our model.We assume that contract terms for both accounts payable and accounts receivable are not changed for the one-year period. In the model the pattern of collection from customers is probabilistic, whereas the pattern o

55、f payment to manufacturer depends on the payment received from customers. This is the case to assure that the cash in hand is sufficient to pay the current debt. The retailer offers a credit term to its customers; a discount of ?! if payment is received within 3 days upon delivery or the full amount

56、 must be paid after the 3th day. On the other hand for each day after the 8th day a delay penalty is charged; The firms objective is to maximize the cash available at the end of a one-year period after paying the annual inventory holding, ordering and crashing costs by proper selection of the decisi

57、on variables that composes the Cash Conversion Cycle. In our model total Lead Time is deterministic whereas the Inventory Conversion Period depends on the Lead Times. Lead Time 1 affects Reorder Point by changing the required safety stock level and demand during Lead Time; what is more, total Lead T

58、ime affects optimal ordering quantity by changing the crashing cost. Thus Inventory Conversion Period is a dependent variable in the model. And since the receivable collection period is probabilistic, we are left with two decision variables; Total Lead Time and the Payment schedule. So our purpose i

59、s to find the optimal payment period and optimal total Lead Time, which gives the optimal CCC for the retailer.What is more the manufacturer is following a similar reward-punishment mechanism regarding the retailers purchases; if the firm pays its debt within 10 days it gets a 1% discount but if it

60、pays after 20th day it has to pay 2% more for each day passed after the 20th day. However as stated in Gupta and Duttas () study, the optimal payment days within early or late payment periods are the last days of those periods since the company should keep the money in hand as long as possible given

61、 that the cash outflow is going to be the same. Thus, in our study we assume that the 35% of the customers are paying on the 3rd day (last day of the early period), and similarly 45% of the customers are paying on the 8th day (last day of the normal period) and for the late payments for practical pu

62、rposes we assume that 20% of the customers are paying on the 10th day.And then simulate a one year period by Monte Carlo Simulation over 100 iterations of the cash available at the end after deducting the annual inventory holding costs. All in all, our simulation results give us the average Collecti

63、on Period, Optimal Lead Time Level and corresponding Inventory Conversion Period. Also the integer linear programming that we developed to minimize present value of accounts payable gives the optimal payment period. Thus, according to Formula 1 we find the optimal Cash Conversion Cycle for the firm

64、by combining the optimal values of its components.The results show that even if the CSL is changed, optimal Cash Conversion Cycle for the company remains 13 days. However the accumulated cash corresponding to the optimal CCC is changing. From the table it is seen that accumulated cash at the end of

65、the one year period is maximized when the CSL is 0.70. This proves that trying to satisfy every customer doesnt necessarily brings more money to firms. In order to increase the CSL the company has to increase safety stock level, which in turn increases the inventory holding cost. When the proceeds f

66、rom satisfying customers are not enough to justify the corresponding inventory holding cost, company starts to lose money for each additional order it aims to fulfill. So from Table 7, it can be deduced that the optimal CSL for the manufacturer is 0.75 when the other parameters are constant. However, even the accumulated cash is maximized when total Lead Time is 13, the difference between the maximu