How Hybrids Work - Chicago-Kent College of Law：如何混合动力车的工作-芝加哥肯特法学院

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1、Reducing the Need for Oil in the Transportation SectorImproving the Fuel Efficiency of Cars: The New Hybrid CarsCurrent Issues Regarding Fuel Consumption by Transportation (1) Transportation Sector Consumes Over 2/3 of Petroleum in the U.S. Public Transportation is Not Widely Used by the General Pub

2、lic Its “uncool” Its unavailableIssues (2) Decrease in Oil Supplies will Increase Cost of Gasoline. Increase of Gasoline Costs Will Directly Affect the Consumer Passenger Cars do not Currently Meet Fuel Efficiency Standards Set by Congress; SUVs Have a Lower Standard which Lowers Overall Fuel Effici

3、ency Even MoreEasier to Change the Car Than to Change the Person! Sport Utility Vehicles are a Status Symbol Only 10-30% of people who own SUVs actually use them for off-road activities 38% of the cars on the road are SUVs With Hybrid technology, people can keep their “big” cars while using less fue

4、l. Ford Escape, 2004 Dodge Durango SUV, uncertain release dateTop 5 Contributors to Greenhouse Gases Around the World1. United States2. China3. Russia4. Japan5. United States AutomobilesLaw Of Supply and Demand A decrease in oil supply will cause an increase in gas prices Gas Prices are currently (i

5、n Chicago) $1.72 / gallon Average U.S. price = $1.67 Imagine Fuel Costs if Gas Prices Continued to RiseElectric Cars Are Not the Answer While electric vehicles qualify as Zero Emission Vehicles, they are impractical Electric vehicles are ideal for short trips around town, but not so good for cross-c

6、ountry trips This is where Hybrid technology becomes key. Improving the Fuel Efficiency of Cars Is the Answer43% of U.S. petroleum use and 11% of world petroleum use is due to consumption of gasolineImproving Fuel Efficiency to 40 mpg would save 2 million barrels of oil per dayCAFE Standards Current

7、ly set at 20.7 for light trucks 27.5 for cars Standards were set in 1978 Current standards have not changed since 1990, despite various attempts to change them legislatively Between 1997 and 2001, average fuel efficiency dropped from 22.1 (peaking) to 20.4 (lowest in 20 years)Factors Behind Setting

8、CAFE When CAFE standards were designed, light trucks were predominantly work and cargo vehicles Comprised less than 20% of new car market Today, light trucks comprise nearly 50% of new car market and are mostly used for personal transportLimits on CAFE Vehicles that weigh over 8500 pounds are exempt

9、 from CAFE requirements This Includes: Ford Excursion Hummer H2 Chevrolet Suburban 2500 Automakers can change the car to make it look like a truck i.e. PT Cruiser cant tow anything and can only transport 4 passengers is a light truck because it has a removable backseatCredits for Fuel Efficiency Cre

10、dits for producing alternative fuel vehicles Credits for exceeding CAFE standards in a given year Credits may be carried backward or forward three yearsCAFE Fines Producers must pay a penalty if the average fuel efficiency of their individual fleets is below CAFE standards Domestic Car Fleet (at 75%

11、 of car manufactured in U.S.) Imported Car Fleet Light Trucks $5.50 for every 0.1 MPG that average falls below relevant standardConcerns with Relying on CAFEto Reduce Oil Consumption Possibly encourage more driving instead of changing personal driving habits Will automakers really respond? Agree to

12、pay fines? Produce cars that fall into the light truck category so as to avoid complying with the more stringent car CAFE requirements Reduction in Safety with Lighter CarsWill Hybrid Cars “Fix” These Problems? Hybrid Cars are One of the Best Short Term Solutions to the Overuse of Petroleum by the T

13、ransportation Sector Without a widespread belief that public transportation is the “Cool” thing to do, fuel efficient cars will allow people to drive just as much as they do now, while significantly decreasing use of oil by autos.Will Hybrid Cars Actually Encourage More Driving? Hard to say The U.S.

14、 is already a mobile society Easy to determine that the car is “clean” and therefore justify driving more People who buy hybrid cars are those who are interested in conservation, and likely, that would stay the same for a large percentage of hybrid buyers Regardless, Hybrid cars are just a part of t

15、he solutionmaybe the biggest part of the solution, but nevertheless, just one partWill Automakers Respond Appropriately? Eliminating differences in CAFE between light trucks and passenger cars will prevent automakers from shifting production Increasing the fine, or adding incentives for improving fu

16、el efficiency will help prevent the willing paying of fines What about Safety Concerns? The Honda Civic Hybrid actually weighs 100 pounds more than the Honda Civic EX Effectively, by using Hybrid technology, fuel efficiency can be increased without sacrificing the weight of the car Other equipment h

17、as been added to cars to improve safety such as air bags; fatality rates have declined significantly since enacting CAFE in 1978Saving Money at the Pump (Using Current Gas Price of $1.67 and driving 12,000 miles / year)Average Car 27.5 mpg = 436 gallons of gas per year T.C. = $728 / year Average SUV

18、 20.7 mpg = 579 gallons of gas per year T.C. = $967 / yearHonda Civic Hybrid 48 mpg = 250 gallons of gas per year T.C. = $417 / yearFord Escape Hybrid 30 mpg = 400 gallons of gas per year T.C. = $668 / yearAre the Differences Enough to Re-Coup the Cost of the Car? At current gas prices, an owner wou

19、ld have to keep a car for 8 years to recoup the difference in price between a hybrid and a “normal” car. But, if gas prices increase (as expected would happen if current oil suppliers decreased oil supply by 25%), recoup in price would be noticed earlier.Eight Years With One Car? Concern that the ba

20、ttery-operated engine would not last 8 years and batteries cost $2000-$3000 to replace Honda & Toyota both offer 10 year warranties on the electric motor. Additionally, tax incentive for buying a hybrid vehicle. (Currently $2000 adjustment to gross income) Cameron Diaz Drove a Toyota Prius to the Os

21、cars Ed Begley, Jr. drove a Prius across the country Leonardo DiCaprios family owns 4 Priuses Carole King, Billy Joel, David Duchovny, & Bill Maher also own a PriusIncentives CAFE not effective in that automakers have chosen to pay fines in many cases Loophole that allows SUVs to be treated differen

22、tly by CAFE, even though most of the car-buying public buys them to use as passenger cars Congress should act to fix these problemsProposed Legislation #1Senators Diane Feinstein & Olympia SnoweComponents of the Feinstein Proposal Require SUVs to meet the same standards as passenger cars by 2011 Aim

23、ed at bringing SUVs to the same requirements as currently required by CAFE for passenger cars (27.5 mpg). No Change for passenger carsCritique of Feinsteins Proposal Doesnt improve fuel efficiency of passenger cars While SUVs are gaining market share and its important to close the loophole, we need

24、to continue to increase fuel efficiency standards for our passenger cars, especially considering the technology exists. However, does prevent automakers from shifting production to light trucks to avoid fuel efficiency standardsProposed Legislation #2Senator Durbins Proposed New Efficiency Legislati

25、onComponents of Durbins Legislation Light Truck exception would only include true trucks and vansnot SUVs or minivans Raise the fuel economy of passenger automobiles to 40 miles per gallon by 2015 with the first increase required in model year 2006. Update civil penalties for violating CAFE laws to

26、account for inflation Advantages of Durbins Leg. Increasing CAFE to 40 mpg would realize a cumulative savings of 123 billion gallons of gasoline by 2015 a number 10 times the amount projected to be realized from drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Durbins Other Legislation Fuel Efficient

27、 Vehicles Tax Incentives Act Would Create a tax break for purchasers of cars that exceed CAFE standards by more than 5 mpgAdvantages of Durbins Other” Legislation Encourages the Customer to buy a fuel efficient carbut it doesnt necessarily apply to hybrid cars as there is already a tax deduction ava

28、ilable for hybrid car purchasers Encourages Automakers to produce cars that customers will buyProposed Changes ala Patti Close Loophole for SUVs and Light Trucks that are used as passenger vehicles Encourage Automakers to produce more fuel efficient cars beyond CAFE requirements Improve CAFE require

29、ments Encourage Consumers to purchase Fuel Efficient CarsClosing the Loophole Single Standard for all Passenger Vehicles requires defining “passenger vehicle” Phasing the new standard in over timeLight Truck Sold primarily to commercial entities (and not to soccer moms) Require dealers to keep track

30、 of sales Has the ability to tow other vehicles or trailers beyond the smallest U-Haul-type trailers Seats more than 4 people Other Requirements?Passenger Car Seats 4 people or less Cant tow most trailers or other cars Bought primarily by families and private individuals Other requirementsNew Unifie

31、d Standard Adopt portions of Senators Feinsteins and Durbins proposals to eliminate the differences. Give manufacturers 3-5 years to bring SUVs and minivans to the current 27.5Also Apply to Passenger Cars that Exceed 8500 pounds Require large passenger cars (such as the Ford Excursion) to meet fuel

32、efficiency standards; otherwise, auto manufacturers may just switch to making super large cars to avoid complianceImproving CAFE While bringing SUVs and minivans into compliance with current CAFE standards, also gradually increase CAFE standards Gradually, over 7-9 years to 40 mpg Effectively, in 9

33、years, fleet averages for all automobile makes used primarily for personal transportation should meet 40 mpg standardEncourage Manufacturers to Produce Increase Fines for failure to meet standards to a more “harmful” level Currently, many fines are merely built into the price of an SUV rather than t

34、he manufacturer paying for them out of pocket Make fines high enough such that if incorporated into sales price, will discourage average joe from buying or if not incorporated, will significantly punish the manufacturerRemove Credit System Allowing manufacturers to incorporate credits both forward a

35、nd backward three years makes for difficult enforcementcant enforce a fine until 3 years after the failure to meet the goal, by which point, manufacturers may have made enough money on the inefficient vehicle to more than cover the fineOr Leave Credit System In With Modifications Allow manufacturers

36、 to trade credits amongst selves in same yearin other words, Ford can sell emissions credits to GM. If Fords average fuel efficiency is 44, and GMs average fuel efficiency is 38, then Ford can sell to GM (under regulated conditions) 2 mpg.Encourage Consumers to Buy Continue Tax Break for Fuel Effici

37、ent Cars Dont phase out the HEV tax credit until Hybrid cars are more established. Incorporate tax credits for consumers who trade in an older, less efficient car, for a more efficient vehicle. Encourages people who cant afford new cars to buy a new car Many less efficient cars stay on the road beca

38、use consumers cant afford a new, more efficient oneHow Should Manufacturers Comply? Hybrid Cars Eliminates risk of lighter cars Technology is already available Lighter, GEO Metro type cars Not popular with people who buy cars as a status symbol Safety RiskHybrid Cars:How do we get there from here?Pr

39、oject description Hybrid Emission Vehicle (HEV) Program commenced in 1993 Partnership between the US DOE and “Big Three” automakers (5 year plan)http:/www.ta.doc.gov/PNGV-Archive/AboutPNGV/intro.htmGOALS of Program Decrease emissions Improve mileage (twice the fuel economy) Comparable performance, c

40、osts, and safetyPNGV and DOE Goals of program began to mesh with that of PNGV (Partnership for a new generation of vehicles) To develop technologies for a new generation of vehiclesFreedomCAR FY 2003: Re-focusing of PGNV into FreedomCAR (Cooperative Automotive Research) Program within DOE)Goals (1)

41、“transforming the transportation sector to run on renewable resources” Main focus on hydrogen fuel cell cars(2) Freedom from/to: petroleum pollutants choosing vehicle we want drive where we want, when we want obtain affordable fuel http:/www.cartech.doe.gov/freedomcar/technical-goals.htmlPNGV Succes

42、s Decrease foreign oil dependence need to become less vulnerable Lower pollutants Autos = major CO contributor 194 million autos (1993) = 270 million (2010) Create jobs promotes “global competitiveness”NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory Projects technical manager Technical work of “Big 3” end

43、ed in 1999 NREL continuing to help auto industry with HEV development by providing technical expertise (battery management, load reduction, and vehicle simulation)http:/www.ctts.nrel.gov/analysis/hev_test/data.shtmlHow Hybrids Work Electric portion of the motor gets power from nickel-metal hydride b

44、attery (next to fuel tank) NO PLUGGING IN NEEDED! (battery maintained by regenerative braking- kinetic energy captured by forward momentum) Gasoline engine made from plastic materialsHow It Works (2) Two or more sources of power combined Ex: Mo-ped Trains Buses Mining trucks Submarines Components Ga

45、s engine Fuel tank Electric motor Generator Batteries Transmission Electric Motor Components Armature or rotor Thin wire coiled around two or more poles Commutator Plate pair attached to axle Brushes Provides “flipping” action with the commutator Axle Field magnet DC power supply Poles Car motors us

46、ually have 3 poles Better dynamics in the car (magnet cannot get “stuck” b/w the poles) Avoids wasting energy and wasting the batteryGenerator Similar to electric motor, but only produces electrical power Used in series hybrids Electric motor acts like a generator when it slows car down to charge th

47、e batteriesBatteries Higher voltages serial Higher currents parallel Energy storage device for electric motor Electric motor: puts energy into batteries and draws from them Gives that extra “help”The upper arrangement is called a parallel arrangement. If you assume that each cell produces 1.5 volts,

48、 then four batteries in parallel will also produce 1.5 volts, but the current supplied will be four times that of a single cell. The lower arrangement is called a serial arrangement. The four voltages add together to produce 6 volts. Types of Hybrids Parallel hybrid Fuel tank provides gasoline to en

49、gine Batteries supply power to electric motor Engine and electric motor work together to turn transmission simultaneously Transmission turns the wheelsParallel Hybrid Fuel tank and gas engine connect to transmission Batteries and electric motor connect to transmission independently Thus, electric mo

50、tor and gas engine propel auto PICTURE- PARALLEL HYBRID Series hybrid Gas engine turns the generator Generator charges batteries or powers electric motor, which rives transmission Gas engine does not directly power autoSeries Hybrid Components are linear, connecting with transmission PICTUREFuel Eff

51、iciency Regenerative Braking Engine shut-off Aerodynamics Low resistance tires Lightweight materialsWhy own a hybrid? Combination of technology of electric cars and economical advantages of conventional cars Low-emissions, fuel efficient Cost of batteries for electric vehicles still too exorbitant f

52、or consumersThe result Electric vehicle advantages that apply to hybrids Lower emissions “Regenerative breaking” “Torque-on-demand”Ford Escape SUVGoals:Improve fuel efficiency 25% by 2008Advantages of Escape 40 mpg city/ 29 mpg highway 500 miles per tank of gasoline Powered by 300 volt battery, alon

53、g with 2-liter 4-cylinder engine Performs like V6 Escape (4x4 capability) 2001 Escape: 18 mpg city/24 mpg highwayHonda Insight 1st gas-electric car in North America 61 mpg city/70 mpg highway (Civic comparison) Parallel hybrid Lightweight body Small engine Advanced aerodynamics 2-SeaterStats Runs by

54、 Integrated Motor Assist power train (IMA) Magnetic electric motor and 5-speed manual transmission 1 liter VTEC gasoline engine, 67 hps Unique torque featuresHonda Civic Hybrid 5-star frontal crash protection rating (NHTSA) Decreased gas mileage, lower emissions VTEC, i-DSI (Dual Point Sequential Ig

55、nition), and friction-reducing materials = excellent performance Available in both Manual Transmission and CVTCivic Hybrid Stats 48 mpg city/47 mpg highway (ULEV) Actual: 43 mpg city / 52 mpg highway City fuel efficiency decreases in winter when temps are below freezing; closer to 35 mpg in city; hi

56、ghway stays the same 47 mpg city/48 mpg highway (SULEV) 1/03: SULEV marketed in California 650 miles per tank of gasoline IMA technology; 1.3 L VTEC 4-cylinder engine 10 year battery lifeHonors/Awards 2002: Best fuel economy award 2002: Runner-up to Insight in Best Fuel Economy Class Best in Categor

57、y: 1-1.4 LiterToyota Prius Parallel hybrid Electric motor starts the car Power Split Device Series hybrid Only Available in a Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)Prius vs. Civic Prius: SULEV rating (emissions 90% cleaner than current average) Operates in electric-only mode 44 hp/274 volt THS swi

58、tches from all-electric to all-engine (efficient mixes) Civic ULEV rating (SULEV available in California) Always driven by gas portion with assistance from electric motor as necessary gas engine turns off whenever temps are above freezing and car is stopped or slowing to below 20 mph 13 hp/144 volt

59、Feels more like a “normal” car when acceleratingAdvantages & Stats $2000 tax deduction starting July 2002 In 2004, the deduction decreases to $1500 2005 to $1000 2006 to $500 There are talks of Congress extending the phase-out, but nothing concrete, yet. Both Honda and Toyota offer extended warranti

60、es (8-10 years) on the electric engine.Toyotas Future Late 2002: marketing began on 20 fuel cell hybrid vehicles (FCHVs) Highlander SUV Featuring nickel-metal hydride battery similar to PriusHow to make the most of your hybrid Dont speed Keep speed constant Dont stop abruptly Manual transmissions: let the regenerative braking work before putting in the clutchFuel Economy051015202530351/1/001/8/001/15/001/22/00Fuel Economy