自考00832英语词汇学考试重点精华整理

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1、 English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史开展、形成和用法。2.English Lexicolo

2、gy is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics文体论 and lexicography(词典学)Chapter 1-Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word词的定义: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (

3、1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以与句法作用。2.Sound and meaning声音与意义: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and i

4、dea itself3.Sound and form读音和形式:不统一的四个原因1the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other 2the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years3some of the difference were created by the early scribes4the borrowings is

5、an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary5printing、standardization、dictionaryOld English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语The written form of English isan imperfect representation of the spoken form。英语的书写

6、是发音形式不完善的代表4.What is vocabulary？1Total number of the words in a language一个语言的单词综合2Words used in a particular historical period 特殊历史时期使用的单词3All the words of a dialect，a book ，a discipline.某个方言，书籍，学科中的所有单词5.Classification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:

7、content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed words6. The basic word stock根本词汇: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. 根底

8、词是几世纪积累的词汇的根底，构成语言的核心。尽管根底词占英语词汇比例小，它仍然是最重要的组成局部。7. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(根本词汇的根本特征):1)All-National character全民通用性most important 2)Stability相对稳定性 relative 3)Productivity多产性 are mostly root words or monosyllabic words 4)Polysemy多义性 5)Collocability可搭配性8. nonbasic vocabulary(

9、1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon行话 (3)slang俚语 (4)Argot暗语 5Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms古语 (7) Neologisms新词语:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)9.Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas

10、as in medicine、in mathematics、in music、in education. 包括特定学科的技术术语和学术领域Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科学，商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流Slangbelongs to the sub-standard language,a category

11、 that seems to stand between the standard general words including informalones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot俚语粗话属于低等语言，处在标准通用语言，包括每人用的非正式词汇和团体部语言包括cant(任何下等团体的行话)，jargons,argot10. slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive俚语生动，直率，印象深刻而且感人11.Certain w

12、ords are labeled slang not because their appearance or pronunciation but because of their usage特定词被标示为“俚语不是因为他们的写法和发音，而是因为他们的用法12.Content words/notional words实词Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals容词表示清楚的概

13、念，因为被认为是概念词。他们包括名词，动词。形容词，副词和数词13.functional words/empty words虚词Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known

14、as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. 功能词没有他们自己的概念。因此，他们也称作“空词。由于他们的主要功能是去表达概念间的关系，词语间和句子间的关系，他们被认为是“结构词。介词，连词，辅助词和冠词属于这一类14.区别：Content words, which constitute the main body of the English vocabulary, are numerous, and the number is ever growing

15、 whereas functional words, which make up a very small number of the vocabulary, remain stable. However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words 容词，构成了英语词汇的主体，是数量多的。并且那数量还在增长，然而，功能词，只占词汇的很少一局部，保持稳定。然而，功能词比容词在表达上做了更多的工作15.Native words：1. Neutral in styl

16、e风格中性2. Frequent in use使用频繁1Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在50000到60000之间2they form the mainstream of the basic word stock 他们构成了根本词汇的主流3stand at the core of the language处在语言的核心16.Words taken over from foreign languages are known

17、as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms从外国带来的词被认为是“借词“借代词或者“所借的17.Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language. 同化词是过去早期借词，现在很好的同化进了英语Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling非同化词是

18、保存了原始发音和拼写的借词Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language. 翻译借词是从英语中的现有材料中取材构成，但是模仿其他语言的构成方式。Semantic-loans.Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their

19、meanings are borrowed. 借义词这类词不是参考形式借来，但是他们的意义是借来的。Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary1. The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles. 英语不是英国群岛上原住民的语言。2. The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系) The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Langu

20、ages8大印欧语群The Eastern set:1The Balto-slavic Group波罗的-斯拉夫语族：Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian普鲁士语，立宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语，俄语2The Indo-Iranian Group印度-伊朗语族：Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语(3)The Armenian Group亚美尼亚语族：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group阿尔巴

21、尼亚语族：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group古希腊语族：Greek.(6)The Italian Group意大利语族：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc. 五种拉丁语言，就是葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语都属于意大利语系(7)The Celtic Group凯尔特语族：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton, etc格兰语，爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布里多尼语等(8)The Germanic

22、Group日耳曼语族：German, Dutch, Flemish and English,Scandinavian(Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish) etc. ，德语，荷兰语，弗兰德语和英语 挪威语， 冰岛语，丹麦语和瑞典语这些都被称作斯堪的纳维亚语言3.A historical overview of the English Vocabulary1The first inhabitants were Celts. Their languages were Celtic. 现在所指最早的居民是凯尔特人，他们的语言仍然是印欧语系的另一分支凯尔特

23、语的方言2The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions. In 55-54 B.C., the Romans invaded the British Isles英国的第二种主要语言是罗马军团的拉丁语，在公元前55到54年，罗马人入侵英伦群岛3Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary凯尔特语只对英语词汇有很小的贡献4. Old English (450-1150) (vocabulary 50,000

24、to 60,000)=Anglo-Saxon1Latin-speaking Roman missionaries under came to spread Christianity in Britain at the end of the 6th century. 在6世纪末期，拉丁语的罗马传教士来传播基督教2users of Old English did not borrow as heavily from Latin or other languages in this period as they did later古代英语的使用者并不像他们后来做的那样大量从拉丁和其他语言借词3The

25、 common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.handbook通常情况用组合两个本地词的形式来创造新词4many Scandinavian words came into the English language许多斯堪的纳维亚词汇进入了英语5it was a high inflected language with complex endings它是高度转折的语言正象现代的德语5.Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections1

26、The Norman conquest started a continual flow of French words into English诺曼征服开始了法国词汇不断进入英语的洪流2The situation of three languages(Latin,French,English)existing simultaneously continued for over a century三种语言并存的情况存在了一百多年3Britain had trade relations with the low countries，especially Holland英国和低等国家有贸易关系，特

27、别是荷兰4Middle English retained much fewer inflections中世纪英语保存更少的转折If we say that Old English was a language of full endings，Middle English was one of leveled endings.如果我们说老英语是一种拥有完整结尾的语言,中世纪英语是一个水平结尾。6.Modern English (1500-up to now): 1Early1500-17002late 1700-up to the present1In the early period of M

28、odern English，known as the Renaissance，many new words taken by scholars from Latin and Greek entered into English许多是学者从拉丁文和希腊文中提取2Latinate flavour of Modern English现代英语的拉丁风格。3In the mid-seventeenth century，English absorbed words from all major languages of the world在十七世纪中期，英语从所有世界的主要语言中吸收词汇。4Since t

29、he beginning of 20th century，more words are created by means of word-formation从本世纪初开始，更多的词通过构词法被创造出来English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.英语已经由合成语言古代英语进化为现代分析语言7.Growth of Present-day English Vocabularythree main sources：1the rapid development of

30、 modern science and technology 45 现代科学和技术的迅猛开展2social, economic and political changes11 社会，经济和政治的变化3the influence of other cultures and languages 24 其它文化和语言的影响8.Modes of Vocabulary Development1Creations:Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affi

31、xes and other elements. 创造是指新词的构成通过使用现有的材料，也就是说，词根，词缀和其他元素。2Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. 意义改变意味着一个老的形式获取新含义以便去应对新的需要。3Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. 借词曾经在词汇的开展中扮演了至关重要的角色，特别是在早

32、期。4Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. 恢复的古词或者废弃的词也对英语词汇的成长做出了贡献。尽管收效甚微。Chapter 3 Word Formation I概念：词素、语素、语素变体1.The minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the co

33、mposition of words.最小的意义单位叫做“词素。词素是“词语组成中最小的功能单位。2.Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.词素是抽象的单位，在话语中被认知通过分开的单位，这单位叫做“语素。They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning.它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体。The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a

34、phone.语素是一个音素发音的词素。3.Morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence .they are called monomorphemic words.语素与词一样，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。这种词叫做单一语素词4.Morphemes which are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternat

35、ive morphs are known as allomorphs.一些词素被按照语素在其中排列而认识，那些替换的语素被称为语素变体。5.the morpheme of plurality |-s：tpk后面-s、dbgl后面-z、iz是在sz J, 3, tj, C13之后the past tense过去形式simple present 一般现在时 possessive 所有格 comparative or superlative degrees 比拟级和最高级6.1Free Morphemes自由词素: have complete meaning in themselves and ca

36、n be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free). 不依靠其他语素的语素是自由语素。这些语素自己有完整的意义可以在句子中当作自由的语法单位来使用。2Bound Morphemes(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.They are

37、 bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words. +例子 不能作为独立词出现的语素是粘连语素。这样称呼因为它们粘连其他语素去构成单词。粘连语素主要出现在派生词中。7.-ist“的实践者；-al表示“的，关于的，-ize表示使成为；-ation表示： “动作,“过程，-ic与有关的8. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) +例子 (2)Affix(词缀)(1) a bound root

38、is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.一个粘连词根是词中承当根底意义的局部，如同自由根词。和自由根词不同的是，他是一个粘连形式不得不与其他词素组合来构成单词。In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although th

39、ey are limited in number, their productive power is amazing.(2)Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.词缀是附属在单词上或者单词元素上以修改词语意义和功能的结构。9. Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicat

40、e grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes. 是附加在词尾用来表示屈折关系，因此被称为“屈折词素。2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 派生词缀是加在其他语素上建立新词的词缀。派生词缀可以分为前缀和后缀。Prefixes come before the word and the suffixes a

41、fter the word10.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 词根是一个词的根底形式不能在没有丧失定义的前提下继续分解. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have b

42、een removed. 根据派生和屈折语形学，“一个词根是词语中去除所有屈折词缀和派生词缀都去除剩下的局部。11.A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 词干可以被定义为任何词缀都能够添加的形式。Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation现代英语中词汇的扩只要依靠构词法2.构词法分类：affixatio

43、n (30%-40%)词缀法 30 -40 compounding (28%-30%)复合法 28 -30 conversion (26%) 转化法 26 shortening (8%-10%)缩略法 8 -10 blending and other means (1%-5%) 拼缀法和其他方法 1 -5% 3. Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known

44、as derivation, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives. 词缀法通常被认为是通过添加词形或者派生词缀到词干以构成新词的方法。这个过程也被称作“派生，因为通过这种方式创造的新词是从旧词派生而来。通过这种方式造出的词叫做“派生词。4.affixation falls into two subclasses: prefixation and suffixation.1Prefixation is th

45、e formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 前缀法通过给词干加前缀来构成新词。前缀通常不改变词干的词类但是只改变它的意思。The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature. Their chief function is to change meani

46、ngs of the stems.前缀的大多数都以不改变词类的特点为特征。它们的主要功能是改变词干的意义。2Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of st

47、ems. 后缀法是通过添加后缀到词干来构成新词的方法。不象前缀主要改变词干的意思，后缀只有一个很小的意义作用，它们的主要作用是改变词干的语法功能。we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes我们可以根据语法根底将后缀分为名词后缀，动词后缀，形容词后缀，等等后缀的类别Deverbal动词派生Denominal名词派生需要记5.Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of n

48、ew words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. 复合词也叫组合词，是通过连接两个以上词干构成新词的方式。通过这样的方式构成的词叫复合词。三个特征：1Phonetic featuresexceptions：sociolinguistics，psycho-analysis2Semantic features：a lot of compounds are transparent许多复合词是意义明确的3Grammatical features6.Compounding can t

49、ake place within any of the word classes,but the productive ones are nouns and adjectives followed by verbs to a much lesser extent复适宜用于任何词类，但是最具生产力的是名词和形容词后跟动词，这样程度更小。7.Formation of compounds复合词组成1Noun compounds名词2Adjective compounds形容词各11种需了解3Verb compoundsconversion or backformation8.conversionze

50、ro-derivation零派生Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 转换法是通过转换词类到另一词类的构成新词方法Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. 由于词没有改变形态但是改变了功能，这个过程被称为“功能转换。Conversion is gene

51、rally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation反转通常被认为是一个派生的过程，一个词条被改变或者反转成为新词类，没有添加词缀。因此叫做“零派生。Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs. 通过反转产生的主

52、要是名词，形容词和动词。conversion is not only a change of grammatical function of the lexical item involved but with it the different range of meaning that it originally carried转换不仅是词条语法功能的转换，而且因为转换出现不同的语意围，和原来承载的不同。9.In some cases, conversion is accompanied by certain changes which affect pronunciation or spe

53、lling or stress distribution. The most common changes are:1Voiceless to voiced consonant2 Initial to end stress在某些情况下，反转被增加一定的变化，这些变化会影响读音或者拼写或者重音的分布。最常见的变化是：+例子1不发音的辅音变成发音的辅音。2开始重音到完毕重音。10.Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.W

54、ords formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words. 混合词是组合两个词的一局部或者一个词加上另一词的一局部来构词的方法。通过这种方式构造的词称作“混合词或拼级词。+例子1) head + tail头尾2) head + head头头3) head + word头整词4) word + tail整词尾11.Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using w

55、hat remains instead. This is called clipping另一种造词的常见方式是缩短一个长词，用减去原词一局部，使用剩下局部的方法。这叫删减。+例子1) Front clipping 前删2) Back clipping 后删3) Front and back clipping 前后删4) Phrase clipping 删短语12.Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organiza

56、tions or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are calledinitialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words. 首字母缩略法是构成新词的过程，通过连接社会和政治组织或者特别名词短语和技术术语的首字母。通过这种方式建成的词叫做首字母缩略法和首字母拼音法，依赖词语的发音。13. Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. In cases li

57、keA.D.(Anno Domini = in the year after the birth of Jesus Christ),B.C. (Before Christ) and C.O.D. (cash on delivery) 缩略词是字母挨个发音的词14.Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word, for example radar (radio detecting and ranging), and WAVES (Women Appointed for Voluntar

58、y Emergency Service), etc首字母缩写词是从首字母构成，但是发音是正常词15.Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. As we know, suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases, and back-formation is therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.

59、 逆构法被认为是后缀法的相反过程。如我们所知，后缀法是通过加后缀到根底的构词方式，逆构法因此就是通过消除假想的后缀的方法来构词的方式。16.Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.There are only a few that can be used as nouns or as both nouns and verbs通过逆构法构成的词大多数是动词, 只有少数可以被当成名词使用，或者同时当作名词和动词。Chapter 5 Word Meaning 1.Words are but symbols, many of whic

60、h have meaning only when they have acquired reference词语只是符号，许多只当它们获得参考的时候才有意义。1.Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the world. The reference of a wordis arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.参考是

61、语言和世界之间的联系。其是任意且约定俗成的。尽管参考是一种抽象，然而在背景的帮助下，它能指示特定的事物。The connection is a result of generalization and abstraction。它是一般化和抽象化的结果。2.Concept概念:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.。概念，是在语言之外，是人类认识的结果，反映人心中的客观世界。3.Meaning and conce

62、pt :They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. 它们都是直接和参照物联系，而且是词的概念但是属于不同的种类。Meaning so is restricted to language use.意义仅限于语言的使用。4.Sense:It denotes the relationship inside the language. The sense of an expression is its place in a sys

63、tem of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. “语感表示语言部的关系。“表达的感觉是它在一套语意关系中的位置，和其他表达相对而言。5.Sense and Reference：Unlike reference, sense denotes the relationships inside the language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expres

64、sions in the language. (ibid) Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference). 不像参考，“语感表示语言部的关系。“表达的感觉是它在一套语意关系中的位置，和其他表达相对而言。由于表达的感觉不是具体事物，因此很难说它属于哪种定义。它也是一种抽象。有意义的词都有语感但并不是每个词都有参照物。6.Motivation(动机)：Motivation accounts for the